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122 Cards in this Set

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Generalized Life Cycle (alternation of generations) of land plants
Sporopyte -> spores -> gametophyte -> gametes (then back to sporophytes)
Bryophytes Life Cycle
Sporophytes (brown capsule, stalk) -> meiosis (inside the capsule) -> spores -> mitosis (develop protonema) -> gametophytes (the moss, green stalk) -> gametes (sperm egg) -> fertilization (requires H2O)
Bryophyte Information
Gametophyte is dominant stage, diploid stage depends on gametophyte
Fern Life Cycle
Sporophyte (fern plant)-> meiosis (takes place in sori)-> spores-> gametophytes (prothallus- heart shaped thing- doesn't need any additional energy from parent)-> gametes (sperm egg)
Gymnosperms Life Cycle
Sporophyte (tree)-> meiosis (mega/microsporangium-scales of cones)-> spores (microspores, megaspores)-> gametophytes (male: pollen; female: female gametophyte)-> gametes (sperm egg)
Gymnosperms Information
Gametophyte takes nourishment from the parent plant until fertilization
Angiosperms Life Cycle
Sporophyte (flowering plant)-> meiosis-> spores (micro/megaspores)-> mitosis-> gametophyte (male: pollen; female: embryo sac)-> mitosis-> gametes-> fertilization
Angiosperms Information
Gametophyte takes nourishment from the parent plant until fertilization
Fern and Moss Information
They disperse their spores, the others don't.
Are all gametes the same?
Yes, sperm and egg.
Homosphorous
Produces only one type of spore: Bryophytes and ferns
Heterosphorous
Produces two types of spores: Angiosperms and gymnosperms
Where do bacteria live?
Just about anywhere. Bacteria has no membrane bound nucleus. Single celled-live as one cell. Prokaryote
Are bacteria helpful or harmful?
Some bacteria are harmful (pathogens which cause disease) while others are helpful (break down organic matter, photosynthetic and can provide food for other organisms (basis of food chain), nitrogen-fixing bacteria)
What growth forms can bacteria have?
Spheres
Rods
Spirals
Colonies
What would the earth be like if there were no bacteria? Why?
Nothing would decompose (it would freeze up nutrients), plants wouldn't be as prosperous, there would be no oxygen. Because plants take in carbon dioxide and put out oxygen but can't do without nitrogen-fixing.
Name a relationship that bacteria may have with plants? How is it important?
Relationship is called SYMBIOSIS: nitrogen fixing bacteria provides nitrogen to the plant. (Having the nitrogen makes plants edible) Root nodule provides the nitrogen in the soil.
How are fungi similar to bacteria?
-Both can be heterotrophic, get their food from something else (fungi always heterotrophic)
-Both break down organic matter
-Both grow almost everywhere
-Both can cause diseases(bacteria:pathogens and fungi:athletes foot)
How are fungi different from bacteria?
-Fungi is eukaryotic (has a membrane bound nucleus) and multicellular while bacteria is prokaryotic and single celled.
-Diverse in their form and roles in the environment
Is fungi prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
Eukaryotic
What is a fungal cell called?
Hypha(e)
What is an interwoven mat of cells called?
Mycelium (roots of fungi)
Is a mushroom more closely related to plants or animals?
Bacteria and fungi are more closely related to plants
What is a mushroom?
A fruiting body (sexual relationship)
What highly important relationship do fungi form with plants?
Relationship with plants: roots of fungi (If this plant has root fungi then the are better and healthier)
-Symbiosos (work together) between plants and fungi
-Increase amount of nutrient uptake
-Attach to roots
-Increase surface area of the roots, which increases water uptake
Haustoria
Parasitic fungi (specialized hyphae, bad fungi)
Human uses of fungi?
-Food--bread, beer, mushrooms
-Diseases (affects people and crops)--hard to get rid of
-Medicine (penicillin)
Are algae related to plants?
Where do they live?
Yes, they are aquatic
What are some of the groups of algae?
-Green algae (freshwater, closest to land plants)
-Red algae (saltwater, edible)
-Brown algae (saltwater, kelp/seaweed)
-Diatoms (fresh/saltwater, pesticide, shells" made silica
-Dinoflagellates (saltwater,dangerous to humans, causes red tides:toxins)
Humans uses of algae?
Edible (sushi) and pesticide
Are the harmful?
Dinoflagellates (produces toxin, kills aquatic life)
Algae Information
-Eukaryotic
-Unicellular, multicellular
-Autotrophic
Three groups of bryophytes?
-Mosses
-Liverworts
-Hornworts

Bryophytes=mosses
How does their life cycle differ from that of other land plants?
-Dispersal is via spores
-They neither have flowers nor produce seeds
-Requires free water so that sperm can swim to the archegonia
Where do bryophytes live?
They live in moist environments on land.
What is necessary for bryophytes to reproduce?
Water
Bryophytes Information
Eukaryotic, multicelluar, autotrophic, homosporous
No special vascular tissue (no xylem or phloem)
What does the gametophyte stage of a moss look like?
Green and photosynthetic, occasionally mistaken for low growing grass or other flowering plants.
What does the sporophyte stage of a moss look like?
Brown, yellowish, or reddish with a foot, stalk, and calyptra.
For a moss what depends on the other?
Sporophyte depends on gametophytes.
What type of gametes do mosses produce?
Sperm and egg...ALWAYS
What are some of the ferns and fern allies that we saw in lab? (Four groups)
Groups of seedless vascular plants:
-Ferns
-Whisk Ferns
-Horsetails
-Spike moss (not a moss-> selaginella-means they have swimming sperm) "resurrection plant"
What does the sporophyte of a fern look like?
Looks like a fern plant
What does the gametophyte (prothallus) of a fern look like?
Heart shape
Can ferns grow independently of each other?
Yes, they can grow independently because they are both free living and the gametophyte is nutritionally independent of the parent sporophyte. Fern is the only one that is free living.
Fern Information
Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), no seeds, no flowers, homosporous
What is the leaf of the fern called?
Frond
What is a "fiddlehead"?
Young leaves that are coiled up.
What is the stem of a fern called?
Rhizome, grown under ground
What are the little "brown dots" on the underside of a fern leaf called?
Sori (This is where meiosis takes place)
Where does the fern stem grow?
Underground
What comprises the little brown dots on the underside of a fern leaf?
Clusters of sporangia
What do the little dots produce?
Spores
Do ferns require water for reproduction? When?
Yes, during the gamete phase because they have fellagela and they need to swim.
What are the four types of gymnosperms?
-Conifers
-Cycads
-Ginkgo
-Gnetophyte
Conifers
Cone bearing tree. Ex; pine, fir, spruce, cedar
Human use: Christmas trees
Cycads
Often mistaken for palm trees, swimming sperm, produce neurotoxins
Human use: Source of starch
Ginkgo
Broad-leaved, native to China, deciduous (losses leaves in the Fall)
Human uses: seeds are edible without seed coat
Gnetophyte
Human use: ephedrine- used as a stimulant, degongestant
-Gnetom, looks like angiosperm, broad leaved
-Ephedra, "morman tea"
-Welwhitchia, grows on fog (water source), 2 main leaves, desert
How does gymnosperms sporophyte and gametophyte compare to that of angiosperms?
-Very similar
-Gymnosperms have no double -fertilization
-GAMETOPHYTE-angiosperm=pollen, ovule gymnosperm=pollen, female gametophyte
Which other group of plants does gymnosperms life cycle most closely resemble?
Angiosperm
How do gymnosperms and angiosperms differ?
No fruit, no flowers, has seeds, and most are evergreen.
What does meiosis produce?
Spores
What does fertilization produce?
Sporophyte
Do all land plants have spores?
Yes
Where are spores found in gymnosperms and angiosperms?
Gymnosperms: micro/megasporangium in the male and female cones
Angiosperms: found in anther and ovary
What is the difference between the gametophytes of gymnosperms and angiosperms vs. that of bryophytes and pteridophytes (ferns)?
CHART.
-Gametophytes are free living in bryophyte and ferns
-Gametophytes are dependent on sporophytes in gymnosperms and angiosperms
-Gametophytes in gymnosperms are pollen, female gametophyte
-Gametophytes in angiosperms are pollen, ovule
What is DNA?
Nucleic acid that contains four different nucleotides. Genes are made up of DNA. DNA exists as a double helix that can be unwound to replicate itself or to make RNA.
What makes up the outside of the DNA molecule?
Sugar and phosphate (ladder)
What are the four nucleotides of DNA?
Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, and Thymine
How do the four nucleotides pair up and fit together?
-A links with T
-G links with C
How does DNA replicate?
-Exact copy produces
-DNA produced
-Interphase
-Happens in the nucleus
What does "semi-conservative" mean?
Half of the new strand of DNA was from an old strand
How does RNA differ from DNA?
RNA is single stranded (DNA-double) and has "U" instead of "T" and has ribonucleic acid instead of deoxyribonucleic acid.
What are the three types of RNA?
mRNA-messenger RNA, brings data
tRNA-transfer RNA, assemble parts
rRNA-ribosomal RNA, where assembly happens
-Large subunit, small subunits
What is the "central dogma" of protein synthesis?
DNA--> RNA--> protein
-Describes transcription and translation
Transcription
-Occurs in the nucleus
-DNA-->mRNA
-rRNA-->two parts (large and small subunits)
-DNA partly unzips, mRNA forms on one side of the exposed nucleotides, mRNA leaves nucleus, DNA zips back up
Translation
-tRNA brings amino acids to rRNA, at rRNA the amino acids are attached to each other, several amino acids linked together make a protein
-Codone:sequence of 3 nucleotides
What are proteins made of?
A protein is made of several amino acids linked together
What are 3 types of mutations?
-Insertions-addition of one or more nucleotides
-Deletions-removal of one or more nucleotides
-Substitutions-change in one or more nucleotides
How can mutations affect an organism?
The effect of mutation depends on which position in the condon is affected.
-Third condon-->lowest chance of large effect
-Second codon-->highest chance
-FIrst codon-->medium
-Silent mutation has no physical effect
Why can mutations occur?
-Radiation
-Natural
-DIseases
Be able to "replicate" DNA and "transcribe/translate" RNA if given a sequence of template DNA.
PRACTICE
Some examples of genetic engineering in plants that we humans use?
-Round up ready soybeans
Herbicide, soybeans that are resistance to this pesticide so they can kill the weeds and the soy beans are ready.
-BT corn
Corn that produces its own pesticide
What is evolution?
The change in allele frequencies over time
How long does evolution take?
It is ongoing,but at least one generation.
What are two major factors affecting evolution?
Genetic diversity and natural selection
What is natural selection?
The environment interacting with phenotypes--its a mechanism that results in evolution
-Survival of the fittest.
-Fitness produces offspring that
live to reproduce
Does natural selection directly affect the phenotype or the genotype of organisms?
Directly affects phenotype, indirectly genotype.
What are three types of selection on a population?
-Stabilizing- phenotypes at the extreme ends are eliminated
-Directional- phenotypes at one end of the continuum are eliminated
-Diversifying- intermediate phenotypes are selected against (leads to new species)
Artificial Selection
Breeding something with a specifically desired trait.
Some adaptations that plants have made to adjust to their ecosystems?
-Butchers broom- leaves are modified stems
-Ponytail palm- has a swollen base that holds water for two years(desert)
-Welwitchia- 30 degrees at night to 140 degrees during the day, only grows two leaves a lifetime, lives for 3000 years,roots grow a mile, fog as source for H2O
Some major environmental problems that we face (and have caused)?
-Global climate change
-Human overpopulation
-Use of resources
-Extinctions
-Pollution
-Altering genetics
How does a microcosm illustrate an ecosystem?
A small scale representation of a habit.
Tropical Rainforest
-Equator, 23.5 degrees south and north
-250-4500 cm rain per yeat
-Broad leaf evergreens, 5 million species, greater bio diversity and more evolutionary change, layers of vegetation
Temperate Deciduous Forests
-Eastern edge of grassland
-75-135 cm rain per year (1 rainy season)
-Mostly summer tree growth,drop leaves in the fall because of lack of liquid water
Taiga
-South Canada
-40-100 cm rain per year
-Evergreen conifer trees, waxy needles, reindeer moss, birch trees, black spure
Grasslands
-Midwest, east of rockies(rain shadow)
-30-100 cm rain per year
-Grasses (short and tall), wildflowers, sage brush, trees only near rivers, plagued by wild fires
Savanna
-Edges of tropical deciduous forests, Africa
-30-50 cm rain per year (rainy and dry season)
-Rapid growing grasses, few trees, maintained by fires
Chaparral
-Costal regions, California, SW corner of Australia and Africa
-40-60 cm rain per year, not much more than desert
-Small trees or bushes with fuzzy or waxy leaves. FOG.
Tundra
-Arctic, between the taiga and arctic ocean (freezing desert)
-25 cm rain or less (growing season only few weeks)
-Treeless, permafrost, small scattered trees along edge, reindeer moss
Deserts
-20-30 degrees south latitudes and between moutian ranges
-Below 25 cm (all rain fallen a few storms)
-Cacti, welwitchia, waxy coatings on plants, wild flowers race through life cycle in one month
Temperate rain forest
-Pacific coast, near coastal mountains
-Over 400 cm rain per year
-Trees don't shed leaves, dominates by narrow leaf conifers, mosses, and ferns
Types of ecosystems in Oklahoma?
-Short grass prairie: panhandle
-Mixed grass prairie: western OK, not panhandle
-Tall grass prairie:NEish OK
-Crosstimbers:south central OK
-Deciduous: east OK
-Swamps: SE OK
How are the ecosystems different?
-Temperature changes across the state from low to high, north to south.
-Precipitation changes least to most, northwest to southeast
-Elevation changes highest to lowest, west to east
Evolution
Natural selection-decrease diversity
Mutation-increase diversity
Gene Flow
-Transfer of genetic material from on population to another
-Pollen/seed dispersal (wind, water, animal)
-Increase genetic diversity
Genetic Drift
-Change in genetic makeup of a population are due to chance
-Decrease diversity
Genetic Diversity
ndividuals that are genetically diverse are more adaptable--individuals can withstand a greater range of conditions. (Harmful mutations masked if you have more genetic diversity)
Sources of Genetic Diversity
-Crossing over (self pollinator)
-Independent assortment (self pollinator)
-Fertilization
-Mutation
Outcrossing
Reproduction with other individuals
-Increases genetic diversity
-Opposite of self-pollination
If you discovered a plant with no stomata submerged in water, why in water?
The stomata are the pores of the leaf which allow air in and out. With no stomata it wouldn't need air, so therefore under water.
Why would it be an advantage for a plant living in the desert to separate carbon intake through stomata and photosynthesis? How to CAM Separate the two process?
CAM plants separate the two by stomata at night because the temperature drops. Photosynthesis occurs during the day because of the need for sunlight.
If you measured the air in a forest canopy for CO2, would you expect to find more CO2 in the day or night? Why?
You would expect to find more CO2 in the night because the temp drops and C3 work better in cool temps. Also C3 more water efficient and rains more at night there.
We established that C4 plants are more efficient at fixing CO2 than C3 plants. Based on what you know about the level of CO2 in the atmosphere, do you expect C3 or C4 plants to be more prevalent in the future?
C3 because they fix more carbon even though they are less efficient that C4.
You had a plant hat grew straight with lateral branches. However, you want a thicker looking plant with many side branches. What do you do?
Remove the source of auxin, apical meristem because it has auxin and apical dominance means few lateral branches.
You notice a plant sitting in the window is growing toward the light. What is this response called? What hormone is responsible? What part of the stem does it affect?
The response is phototropism. Auxin in responsible for the bending.
Double fertilizationis a characteristic of angiosperms. What is fertilized by each of the two sperm cells from the pollen? What does each of these two become? What one thing do they become apart of?
The egg nucleus and 2 polar nuclei are fertilized and they become a zygote and endosperm. They become part of the seed.
Photosynthesis
6 CO2 + 6 H2O---> 6 O2 + C6H12O6
Name three secondary compounds used by humans.
-Caffeine: to create energy
-Opium: to reduce pain
-Nicotine: to subside an already made addiction
You are setting up a large winery, what steps would you take to ensure the best production of ethanol?
-Oxygen free zone that is also cool
-You need sugars (grapes) and yeast
-Then siphon out CO2.
Yeast produces ethanol but it can also kill yeast so to preform anaerobic respiration must be very careful.
What is root pressure? What causes it? How do you know that is is not the ONLY way water is moved in xylem?
Root pressure is part of the movement of water. The different pressures cause this. Root pressure can only do it alone on small plants such as grass. In large plants it also uses transpiration.