Bones Cartilage Muscle

Front 1

What is the function of hyaline cartilage in the skeletal system?

Back 1

Found at the end of the ribs and in the treachia.

Front 2

What is the function of elastic cartilage in the skeletal system?

Back 2

Found in external ear and epiglottis.

Front 3

what is the function of fibrocartilage in the skeletal system?

Back 3

Located in the pubic symphosis and intravertibral disks it absorbs impact.

Front 4

What are the functions of bones?

Back 4

Support, Protection, mineral storage, blood cell production, lipid storage.

Front 5

Parts of a long bone?

Diaphysis

Back 5

Shaft or body of the bone

Front 6

Parts of a long bone

Epiphysis

Back 6

Ends of the bone

Front 7

Parts of a long bone

Metaphysis

Back 7

Where diaphysis joins epiphysis.
includes the eipiphyseal plate.

Front 8

Parts of a long bone

epiphyseal plate-

Back 8

layer of hyaline cartilage where diaphysis grows in lenth

Front 9

Parts of a long bone

Articular cartilage

Back 9

Hyaline cartilage covering epiphysis at joints. reduces friction and absorbs shock

Front 10

Parts of a long bone

Periosteum

Back 10

Outer fibrous membrane covering of the bone. essential for bone growth, repair, nutrition and ligament and tendon attachment.

Front 11

Parts of a long bone

Medullary cavity

Back 11

space with diaphysis containing yellow bone marrow

Front 12

Parts of a long bone

endosteum

Back 12

inner lining of the bone that covers the medullary cavity.

Front 13

Epiphyseal plate vs.

epiphyseal line

Back 13

Plate- growth plate when metaphysis dissapears

Line- left when the bone is fully ossified and the cartilage is gone.

Front 14

Osteoclast
osteoblast
osteocyte

Back 14

osteoclast- made from monocytes, use enzymes that cause bone destruction.

Osteoblast- In periosteum, secretes collagen and developes in osteocytes.

Osteocytes- mature bone cells responsible for metabolism in bone tissue.

Front 15

Trabeculae-

Back 15

network of bone columns in the spongy bone of long bone.

Front 16

Diploe

Back 16

network of spicules in flat bones

Front 17

Be able to recognise the structures in an osteon or haversian system.

Back 17

Central (Haversian) canals extending vertically in compact bone, containing vessels and nerves.
Concentric lamellae (rings of hard, calcified matrix) surround the central canals.
Lacunae - the spaces between lamellae enclosing osteocytes.
Canaliculi are tiny channels of lacunae that connect to each other and, finally, the central canal.
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals – where blood vessels, lymphatics & nerves enter compact bone

Front 18

What is the primary mineral salt that makes up bone?

Back 18

hydroxyapatate- calcuim phosphate

Front 19

Steps of intramembranous ossification. (formation of bone within connective tissue membrane. Flat bones are made this way.

Back 19

i) Centers of ossification form when mesenchymal cells cluster and then convert to osteoblasts.
ii) Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix of bone and then turn into ostocytes.
iii) Mineral salts are deposited in the matrix to make it hard (calcification).
iv) Bony matrix makes trabeculae, which fuse to form spongy bone.
- Blood vessels grow in the spaces between trabeculae to make red bone marrow.
v) Periosteum develops when mesenchymal cells condense around the bone.
- Spongy bone is replaced at the outer edges to form compact bone

Front 20

Endochondral ossification steps.
Formation of bone by replacement of hyaline cartilage. most bones made this way.

Back 20

i) Mesenchymal cells crowd together and then convert to chondroblasts.
- Chondroblasts secrete cartilage matrix, which makes a cartilage model of bone.
- Perichndrium develops around the cartilage model.
ii) Cartilage becomes calcified. This kills chondrocytes.
- Nutrient artery penetrates in the middle of the model and stimulates osteoblasts.
- Osteoblasts develop compact bone and periosteum.
iii) Primary ossification center makes spongy bone, which grows towards the ends of the bone.
- Osteoclasts break down the center and make medullary canal.
iv) Secondary ossification center develops (at birth) when epiphyseal artery penetrates the epiphysis
v) Hyaline cartilage remains as articular cartilage at bone ends & epiphyseal plate (bone grows here)
When bone stops growing in length (around 18), epiphyseal plate is calcified to form epiphyseal line.
-Bone grows in diameter from the periosteum towards the endosteum - where osteoclasts destroy it.

Front 21

fracture types.

Back 21

a. Comminuted- bone fragments into three or more pieces. Common in old age.
b. Compression- Bone is crushed. Common in porous bones.
c. Spiral- Ragged break, occurs when twisting is involved.
d. Epiphyseal- Epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the ephiphyseal plate. Occurs where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occurring.
e. Depressed- Broken bone portion is pressed inward. Typical skull fracture.
f. Greenstick- Bone breaks incompletely, like a twig. Common in children who have relatively more flexible bones than adults.

Front 22

what are the steps of bone repair?

Back 22

a. Bone is broken and a Hematoma forms: blood clots to prevent further bleeding.
b. Calluse formation: chondrocytes make cartilage.
c. Chondrocytes die, lacunae form together to form a central canal
d. Blood vessles invade canal
e. Osteoblasts activity: imbed around central canal: produce hydroxyapetite.
f. Osteoclasts try to remodel and put the bone back to its original shape.

Front 23

what is rickets?

Back 23

when vitamin d is decreased and bones become brittle

Front 24

Where is yellow marrow found and what does it do.

Back 24

Yellow marrow is found in the medullary cavity it is for lipid storage.

Front 25

foramen

Back 25

opening through with nerves, blood vessels or ligaments pass sucha s the foramen ovale, and sphenoid.

Front 26

Meatus

Back 26

tube like channel in a bone

such as the external auditory meatus.

Front 27

Fossa

Back 27

Shallow bone depression.

like the mandibular fossa on the temporal bone.

Front 28

Condoyle

Back 28

large round prominence forming a joint

like the condoyles of the femur and tibia.

Front 29

head

Back 29

round bony projection that forms a joint. supported on a narrow neck.

like femur head.

Front 30

Facet

Back 30

smooth, flat articular joint forming surface.

Front 31

tuberosity

Back 31

large round projection with a rough surface.

Deltoid tuberosity on humerus.

Front 32

Spinious process (spine)

Back 32

sharp slender projection.

spine of scapula

Front 33

trochanter

Back 33

large blunt projection

(greater trochanter of the femur)

Front 34

Crest

Back 34

prominant ridge

(illiac crest)

Front 35

articulation

Back 35

place of possible motion

Front 36

Synarthosis

Back 36

immovable joint (suture or tooth)

Front 37

Amphiarthrosis

Back 37

Slightly movable (vertebrae)

Front 38

Diarthrosis

Back 38

Freely moveable, have sinovial capsule (hip, shoulder)

Front 39

Suture

Back 39

interlace and resemble a suture. In skull: saggital, coronal,lambdoidal sutures.

Front 40

Synostoses-

Back 40

fully ossified, should not move, bony formation of portions of the oscoxae, epiphyseial plate.

Front 41

Syndesmosis

Back 41

Little movement. Contains more fibrous ocnnective tissues between widely spaced bones. functionally they are classified as amphiarthrosis because they allow slight movement.

Front 42

Gomphosis

Back 42

contain cone shaped tooth fitting into bony socket.

considerd synarthrosis (immovable)

Front 43

what are the types of cartilagious joints?

Back 43

Synchondroses- hold bones by hyaline cartilage (epiphyseal plate)
and
Symphysis- hold bones together by fibrous cartilage- pubis, intervertebral joints.

Front 44

Is a joint more or less stable if it has a lot of movement?

Back 44

less stable

Front 45

Know the structure of a synovial joint (diarthritic)

Back 45

a.Articular cartilage- hyaline cartilage
b.Synovial cavity0
c.Articular capsule
i.Fibrous portion-
ii.Synovial membrane- serous membrane that makes synovial fluid
d.Synovial fluid
e.Reinforcing ligaments- hold bone to bone
i.Intrinsic- make up walls of capsule
ii.Extrinsic- intracapsular, extracapsular
f.Fat pads- for cushioning or to fill out the joints, shock absorption, insulation.
g.Meniscus- are hyaline cartilage discs in the knee joint that absorb shock & help bones fit well at the joint.
-Medical meniscus is semicircular cartilage on medial aspect.
-Lateral meniscus is nearly circular cartilage on the lateral aspect.

Front 46

What are bursae?

Back 46

Fluid filled tubes that prevent friction when bones, muscles or tendons move.

Front 47

WHat is a tendon sheath?

Back 47

Tendons hold muscle to bone

Front 48

Origin vs insertion

Back 48

origion- proximal less moveable

insertion- distal more moveable

Front 49

joint movement

Flex

Back 49

Angle between bones decreases

(wrist to shoulder)

Front 50

extend

Back 50

angle between bone increases

Front 51

Hyper extend

Back 51

bend head backwards

Front 52

Dorsiflex

Back 52

bending foot towards dorsum

(standing on your heels)

Front 53

Plantar flex

Back 53

foot towards plantar surface

(standing on your toes)

Front 54

Abduction

Back 54

Moving bone away from the midline

Front 55

Adduction

Back 55

moving bone toward the midline

Front 56

Circumduction

Back 56

Moving body part in a circle (swing arm when throwing)

Front 57

Rotation

Back 57

bone revolves around its longitudinal axis (shaking head to say no)

Front 58

Supination

Back 58

Turning palm upward or forward or lying on back

Front 59

pronation

Back 59

turning palm downwards or backwards or lying on stomach

Front 60

Inversion

Back 60

Turning part inwards (turning sole medially)

Front 61

Eversion

Back 61

Turning part outwards (turning sole laterally)

Front 62

Protraction

Back 62

Forward movement (thrust jaw forward)

Front 63

retraction

Back 63

bringing protracted part back to anatomical position (jaw back from protraction)

Front 64

Elevation

Back 64

upward movement (arm above the head)

Front 65

depression

Back 65

Downward movement

(opening mouth depresses mandible)

Front 66

Opposition

Back 66

Thumb to finger
Opposable thumb and moving it across the hand

Front 67

Glide

Back 67

wrist and ankle

Front 68

Planar joints

Back 68

Flat or slightly curved articular surfaces
-they permit side to side and back and forth gliding movements.
ex. intercarpals, intertarsals.

Front 69

Hinge joints

Back 69

Have well fitting convex and concave bone and surfaces (elbow, knee)

permid flexion and extension only

Front 70

Pivot joints

Back 70

projection of one bone fits into ring of another (atlas axis) they permit rotation on an axis such as a shaking head.

Front 71

Condyloid joints

Back 71

convex and concave oval surfaces of two bones articulate (mp joints) They permint side to side and up and down movement.

Front 72

Saddle joints

Back 72

bones articulate like a saddle and rider
(trapezium and base of 1st metacarpal. Permitting side to side and up and down movements

Front 73

Ball and socket joints

Back 73

ball of one bone articulates with the socket of another
prermiting movement in many directions.
(shoulder and hip)

Front 74

Structure of the knee joint

Back 74

a. Joint capsule - strengthened by surrounding muscle tendons.
b. Patellar ligament, extending from patella to the tibial tuberosity, strengthens anterior joint surface.
c. Obique popliteal ligament strengthens the posterior joint surface.
d. Arcuate popliteal ligament strengthens the lower-lateral part of the posterior knee joint.
e. Tibial collateral ligament strengthens medial knee joint.
f. Fibular collateral ligament strengthens lateral knee joint.
g. Anterior cruciate ligament extends postero-laterally from tibia to femur to stabilize the knee joint.
h. Posterior cruciate ligament extends antero-medially from tibia to femur, stabilizes knee joint
i. Menisci are cartilage discs in the knee joint that absorb shock & help bones fit well at the joint.
-Medical meniscus is semicircular cartilage on medial aspect.
-Lateral meniscus is nearly circular cartilage on the lateral aspect.
i. Bursae are fluid-filled sacs that prevent friction when bones, muscles or tendons move.

Front 75

synovial joints

Back 75

j. They have synovial cavity that permits free movement.
k. Functionally, they are classified as diarthroses (freely movable joints)
l. They have hyaline cartilage at the ends of bones that reduces friction & absorbs shock.
m. A two layered articular capsule covers synovial joints.
n. Outer fibrous capsule – made of dense, irregular connective tissue attached to periosteum
o. Its flexibility allows free joint movement
p. Its parallel fibers (ligaments) provide strength & prevent bone dislocation
q. Inner Synovial membrane – made of loose, areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers.
r. It secretes synovial fluid in the synovial (joint) cavity.

Front 76

synovial fluid functions to

Back 76

lubricate joints to reduce friction, supply nutrients, remove wastes

Front 77

What is luxation?

Back 77

complete dislocation

Front 78

what is subluxation

Back 78

closer to a sprain, incomplete tear

Front 79

what is arthritis?

Back 79

joint inflamation

Front 80

why is a muscle cell called a fiber?

Back 80

because of its long slender shape.

Front 81

What are the three parts of a triad

Back 81

T-tubule, Cisternae, m line

Front 82

What are myofilaments?

Back 82

Myofibrils that contain thick and thin protien filiments. they form compartments called sarcomers, the basic functional unit of striated muscle.

Front 83

Why is skeletal muscle called striated.

Back 83

Striations are visible. The alternating dark a bands and lighter I bands create this effect.

Front 84

Where can cardiac tissue be found?

Back 84

the heart

Front 85

Why is smooth muscle called involuntary

Back 85

It works without direction. No neurotransmission is required.

Front 86

What are the charachteristics of muscle tissue?

Back 86

a.Excitability – Muscles receive & respond to stimuli from nerves.
b.Conductivity – Muscles conduct the electrical impulse causing contraction
c.Contractility – Muscles shorten in response to stimuli
d.Extensibility – Muscles stretch in response to stimuli without being damaged
e.Elasticity – Muscles return to original shape after contraction/extension

Front 87

what is are the functions of muscle tissue?

Back 87

a.Protection for bones
b.Movement
c.Posture
d.Heat generation
e.Glycogen storage
f.Support

Front 88

What are the sheaths of skeletal muscle and where can they be found?

Back 88

a. Epimysium- membrane that covers entire muscle (epi means “on top”)
b. Perimysium- covers bundles of muscle fiber, bundles of muscle fibers are called fascicle.
c. Endomysium- Covers each individual muscle fiber, contains capillary network, contains satellite cells that assist in muscle repair. Fuses into membrane of skeletal muscle cell.
d. All coverings merge to form tendons and aponeurosis (broad sheetlike tendon)

Front 89

what is the sarcoplasm

Back 89

the the fliuid inside the muscle cell

Front 90

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

Back 90

Special name for the endoplasmic reticulum inside the muscle cell. It is specialized and has cisternae to sequester ca2+

Front 91

What are the myofibrils

Back 91

Rodlike contractile element. Occupies most of the msucle cell volume. Composed of sarcomeres arranged end to end. Appear banded, and bands of adjacent myofibrils are alligned.

Front 92

Which molecule is the thick filament and which is the thin?

Back 92

Actin is think
myosin is thick

Front 93

Know the structure of a sarcomere?

Back 93

A sarcomere is a muscle segment, it is the region of a myofibril between two successive z discs, it contains an A band flanked by half an I band at each end. The sarcomere is the smallest contractile unit of msucle fiber.
They are alligned like box cars.• Z discs at the ends (that separate two sarcomeres)
• A dark band containing thick myosin filament (A band)
• A light band containing only thin actin filament at either end of the A band (I band)
• H zone at the center of A band that contains only thick myosin filament

Front 94

What is a triad?

Back 94

Successive groupings of the three membranous structures, terminal cisterna, t tubules and terminal cisternae.

Front 95

What is a pacemaker cell

Back 95

the contractions of the heart are controlled by chemical impulses. the cells that create the rythmical impulses are called pacemaker cells.

Front 96

What is perstalisis?

Back 96

The rythmic contraction of smooth muscles to propel contents through the digestive tract.

Front 97

What is the benefit of anaerobic resistance exercise?

Back 97

builds muscles and strenthens bones.

Front 98

What is the benifit of aerobic exercise?

Back 98

Increases blood supply to muscles and improves cellular respiration.

Front 99

What determines the force of muscle contraction?

Back 99

the number of motor units stimulated (more units- stronger contraction) frequency of stimulation (number of impulses per second)

Front 100

What is oxygen debt?

Back 100

too much oxygen used to produce energy from pyruvic acid. Heavy breathing is neccicary to replenish oxygen.

Front 101

What happends to cause muscle fatigue?

Back 101

prolonged activity leads to an inability of muscles to contract.

Front 102

How do we regenerate ATP rapidly for muscle contraction.

Back 102

Creatine phosphate in the cells can donate its phosphate to adp making it atp.
Anaerobic metabolism of sugar or glycolysis. splits glucosse into two pyruvate molecules and you get two atp. Aerobic metabolism takes pyruvate through a series of rxns yielding 36 atp.Citric acid cycle.

Front 103

What is the difference between isotonic contraction and isometric contraction?

Back 103

Isotonic- muscle shortens to produce movements but maintains the same tension (walking lifting weights)
Isometric- muscle does not shorten in length but muscle tension increases (pushing against a wall)

Front 104

What is muscle tone?

Back 104

Partially contracted state of the muscle even when teh muscles are not in use.

Front 105

What is treppe?

Back 105

The staircase effect. when a muscle contracts after a long period of rest its initial contractions may only be half as strong as those that occur later in response to stimuli of the same strength during these periods a tracing shows a staircase pattern refered to as treppe.

Front 106

What is tetanus?

Back 106

Sustaned contraction

Front 107

what is wave summation

Back 107

a. An immediate second stimulus causes a stronger muscle contraction (The nervous system achieves greater muscular force by increasing the firing rate of motor neurons. If two identical stimuli are delivered to a muscle in rapid succession, the second twitch will be stronger than the first, appearing like a wave to ride on the shoulders of the first. The second contraction occurs before the muscles have completely relaxed, this is why it is stronger.

Front 108

What are the components of a muscle twitch

Back 108

Latent period
period of contraction
period of relaxation

Front 109

what is a motor unit

Back 109

a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies.

Front 110

what is an action potential?

Back 110

Electrical current

Front 111

What is the neuromuscular junction?

Back 111

the axon of each motor neuron divides profusely as it enters the muscle. each axon ending gives off short curling branches that form an elliptical neuromuscular junction with a single muscle fiber

Front 112

what is the function of a triad?

Back 112

a. T tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum provide signals for contraction. At the triads, these organelles come into close contact. They form something that looks like a double zipper of integral proteins that protrudes into the intermembrane spaces. The protruding integral proteins of the t tubules act as voltage sensors and the SR, called foot proteins, form channels through which ca2+ can be released from the SR cisternae.

Front 113

What is the role of acetylcholine?

Back 113

neuro transmission

Front 114

what is meant by the muscle cell being polarized?

Back 114

A voltmeter would show that there is a potential voltage differnce across the membrane and the inside is negative relative to the outer membrane face.

Front 115

depolarization

Back 115

when more Na diffuses in that K diffuses out, a change in membrane potential occurs so that the interior of the sarcolemma becomes slightly less negative.

Front 116

How does an action potential travel down the length of a muscle fiber?

Back 116

depolarization and generation of the action potential.
Propagation of the action potential.
repolarization.

Front 117

What are the steps of excitation?

Back 117

a. An action potential in a nerve reaches the end of a nerve and depolarizes the neural end bulb causing the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach)
b. Acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction and diffuses across the synapse.
c. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the motor end plate and causes the opening of ligand gated sodium channels, this begins depolarization of the muscle fiber membrane.
d. Now that the membrane has begun to depolarize the voltage gated channels open.
e. With the channels open, sodium rushes in and other channels open to allow potassium to rush out. The wave of depolarization washes over the surface of the muscle fiber and down into the T-tubules.

Front 118

what are the steps of contraction?

Back 118

a. When the wave of depolarization rushes down the T-tubule it causes the release of calcium from the cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
b. Calcium diffuses down the M-line of the sarcomere and to the troponin which holds the tropomyosin over the binding sites on the actin.
c. When calcium binds to the troponin, it causes the troponin to change shape and move the tropomyosin away from the binding sites on the actin.
d. Now that the binding sites on the actin are exposed, myosin can go to work. Myosin already has a ATP that has been split into ADP and Pi. It is in its high energy configuration (got that energy when ATP split).
e. The myosin heat with ADP+Pi can bind to the binding site on actin. This forms a crossbridge between the myosin and the actin. When this happens the myosin head bends and drags actin down beside it. This is called a power stroke. (Imagine if you will that you are laying on the floor and there is a rope laying parallel to you. If you reached over with your arm you could grab the rope and drag it past you.)
f. After the myosin head is done dragging the actin beside it the ADP+Pi leaves and a new ATP attaches and splits.
g. The energy from the ATP splitting resets (re-cocks) the myosin head to go through the process again.

Front 119

how does muscle fiber relax?

Back 119

a. Acetylcholine has to stop being released by the nerve
b. Acetylcholine esterase degrades any residual acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction.
c. The sodium/potassium pump pumps sodium back out of the cell and potassium back into the cell and repolarizes the cell membrane.
d. Calcium diffuses off of the troponin and goes back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
e. Troponin goes back to its original shape and moves tropomyosin back over the actin binding sites
f. The muscle is returned to its original length through the natural elasticity of the muscle, gravity, or antagonistic muscles pulling it back into shape.
g. Muscles cannot on their own lengthen!

Front 120

what is the main difference between striated and smooth muscle?

Back 120

Striated muscle is voluntary and smooth muscle is involuntary.