Body Basics

Front 1

How many cells does the 'reference man' have?

Back 1

30 x 10^12

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Plasma membrane - structure and function

Back 2

S: Phospholipid bilayer with sugars and proteins embedded.

F: Controls the entry and exit of substances into the cell, encloses the cytosol.

Front 3

Nucleus - structure and function

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S: Nucleoplasm, nucleoli and chromatin in a nuclear membrane with pores

F: Control centre of cell, stores genetic information that dictates protein synthesis including ribosomes

Front 4

Mitochondria - structure and function

Back 4

S: Double membrane forming cristae on the inside surface for binding enzymes

F: ATP synthesis

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Rough ER - structure and function

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S: extension of the nuclear membrane; has ribosomes attached

F: scaffold for synthesis of extracellular proteins. Vesicles containing these proteins bud off to the golgi

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Smooth ER - structure and function

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S: Membrane bound system of sacs

F: synthesis of lipids, steroids and sex hormones. Detoxifies drugs.

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Golgi apparatus - structure and function

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S: Stacks of membrane bound sacks

F: Protien modification and packaging into vesicles for secretion, containing in lysosomes or for adding to the cell membrane

Front 8

Lysosomes - Structure and function

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S: Membrane bound sac containing acid hydrolase enzymes and hydrogen ion pumps

F: Intracellular and extracellular digestion, autophagy, autolysis. Destroys pathogens

Front 9

Ribosomes - Structure and Function

Back 9

S: Ribosomal RNA and protein - large and small subunit

F: Site of protein synthesis; moves along the mRNA carrying amino acids

Front 10

Centrosome - structure and function

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S: Two perpendicular centrioles each composed of microtubules

F: chromosome movement in cell division, base of flagella/cilia, organisation of microtubules in the cytoskeleton

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Cytoskeleton - Structure and function

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3D protein scaffold giving mechanical strength as well as:

1. Actin microfilaments - cell movement/shape changes

2. Tubulin microtubules - structural support, transport and spindle in cell division

3. Intermediate filaments - membrane support, localisation of organelles, oppose mechanical force

4. cell extensions - projections of the plasma membrane used for movement

Front 12

Types of microscopy technique

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Light microscopy

Fluorescence microscopy

Scanning electron microscopy

transmission electron microscopy

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Staining

Back 13

H and E - pink and purple

DAPI - makes nucleus appear rounded and blue

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Tissue definition

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Large groups of similar cells grouped together to carry out a particular function

Front 15

Types of cells in tissues

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Parenchymal - main function of tissue

Supporting cell (mesenchymal) - structural support in an extracellular matrix

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Epithelial tissue overview

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Form the boundaries between environments - it covers the body, lines body cavities and is found in glands. Its main functions are protection, secretion and absorption.

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Simple epithelial definition and subdivisions

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A single layer of cells attached to a basement membrane - useful in secretion and absorption.

1. simple squamous - flattened cells, found in alveoli and blood vessels.

2. simple cuboidal - cube shaped cells, found in kidney tubules and ovary

3. simple columnar - rectangular cells, found in GI tract and fallopian tubes (can be ciliated)

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Stratified epithelial definitions and subdivisions

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Stratified contains several layers of cells with continual cell division in the basal layers - good at protective role.

1. squamous - keratinised (skin) and non-keratinised (moist surfaces)

2. transitional - pear shaped cells only found in the urinary tract

Front 19

Glands description

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Epithelia that secrete and store products as hormones.

Endocrine glands are duchess so hormones are released directly into the blood or extracellular fluid.

Exocrine glands secrete products through a duct onto the epithelium

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Types of exocrine gland

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Merocrine - secretory product released from glandular cell in exocytosis

Apocrine - vesicle containing products is secreted from the glandular cell

Holocrine - glandular cell dies and becomes the secretory product

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Connective tissue overview

Back 21

Most abundant tissue in the body and consists of cells embedded within the extracellular matrix. It develops from the mesoderm. Functions include support, protection, binding transport and insulation. It has poor repair potential.

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Areolar Connective Tissue

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semi solid matrix of collagen and elastin fibres containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, mast cells and macrophages. It connects and supports other tissues e.g. under the skin

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Adipose tissue

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Areolar tissue matrix containing adipocytes, which contain large fat globules. White adipose tissue acts as a thermal insulator and energy store in adults. Brown adipose tissue is found in the newborn and is highly vascularised.

Front 24

Reticular tissue

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Found in the lymph system, and the matrix consists of reticular cells and fibres and white blood cells.

Front 25

Dense connective tissue

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Low cell numbers but high fibre content. Fibrous tissue consists of collagen and fibroblast cells and is found in tendon and ligament. Elastic tissue consists of elastin fibres so that the tissue has a high degree of recoil, e.g. lungs, blood vessels.

Front 26

Cartilage

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Consists of chondrocytes embedded in a proteoglycan matrix. Hyaline is found at the end of long bones, fibrocartilage is found in intevertebral discs, and elastic fibrocartilage is found in the outer ear.

Front 27

Bone

Back 27

osteocytes embedded within a mineralised collagen matrix. Osteoblasts lay down new bone, osteoclasts remove it and osteocytes are mature bone cells.

Front 28

Muscle tissue overview

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Tissue that is able to contract and relax, so provides movement.

Front 29

skeletal muscle

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striated with multinucleate muscle fibres. It is under voluntary control and moves the muscle of the skeleton.

Front 30

Smooth muscle

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Non striated and under involuntary control. It is useful in peristalsis, and is found in the GI tract and ureter.

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Cardiac Muscle

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Striated and under involuntary control. It is mono nucleated and makes up the walls of the heart. The intercalated discs help propagate the wave of excitation.

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Nervous tissue overview

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Interconnected network that allows communication between the brain, spinal cord and the rest of the body

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Neurones

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excitable cells that initiate, receive and transmit information

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Glial cells

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Non-excitable cells that support the neurones

Front 35

Cell junctions

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Epithelial cells function together as a tissue so are tightly associated via intracellular junctions

Front 36

Tight junctions - structure and function

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S: occludins (interconnecting membrane protein links)

F: interlocking protein links fuse membranes to give a small intercellular space that limits permeability between cells

Front 37

Gap junctions - structure and function

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S: Connexons (protein tubes)

F: Protein channels through plasma membranes or intercellular spaces allow transport between cells

Front 38

Desmosome - structure and function

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S: Cadherins (cell adhesion molecules)

F: Cadherins bind to the basal lamina of cells at adhering junctions, giving stability to the tissue

Front 39

X ray radiography

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Dense tissue appears radiopaque, such as compact bone. Soft tissue appears radiolucent, such as fat. Common clinical uses are to diagnose bone problems, and has disadvantages including poor soft tissue resolution and organs appearing stacked.

Front 40

CT scans

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Produces a transverse section in the inferior view with X rays rotating around the patient. It is chap and fast, producing good images of both soft and hard tissue. It is not good for joints.

Front 41

Angiography

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X ray technique of the blood vessels using contrast medium. Useful for aneurysms or stenosis.

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Positron Emission Tomography

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Detects radioactive isotopes injected into the body, so can be used to detect areas of high cellular activity - used in brain imaging studies or cancer treatment

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MRI

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Can produce high contrast images of soft tissues without using radiation, by detecting levels of hydrogen in the body (water content)

Functional MRI measures blood oxygen and is good for brain scans.

Disadvantages of MRI are the high magnetic fields (bad for implants) and longer time.

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Sonography

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Ultrasonic sound waves are probed and the echoes picked up. this detects the outlines of organs (not air filled structures or ones surrounded by bone). Used for visualising foetuses.

Doppler ultrasound is used to image blood flow.

Advantages are that it is safe, non-invasive and quick, but gives low resolution and has no hard tissue penetration.

Front 45

Masson's trichrome

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Connective tissue stains (green, red and black)

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Von kossa

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Mineral stain (black)

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Alizarin red

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Mineral stain (red)

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Oil red O

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Fat globule stain (red)

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Haematoxylin and eosin

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Pink and purple