Boards

Front 1

Bacteria are classified in which kingdom?

Back 1

Monera

Front 2

Protozoa are…

Back 2

Unicellular, eukaryotic

Front 3

Mastigophores are protozoa that use…

Back 3

Flagella

Front 4

Ciliophores are protozoa that use…

Back 4

Cilia

Front 5

Nematode aka

Back 5

Round worm

Front 6

Cestode aka

Back 6

Tape worm

Front 7

Symbiosis

Back 7

Close association of two dissimilar environments

Front 8

Commensalism

Back 8

Symbiosis when one organism gains and the other in unharmed

Front 9

Mutualism

Back 9

Symbiosis when both organisms gain from the association

Front 10

Parasitism

Back 10

One organism adversely affects the other

Front 11

Pathogenicity

Back 11

Ability of a pathogen to produce disease

Front 12

Virulence

Back 12

Degree of pathogenicity

Front 13

Eosiniphils and neutrophils are

Back 13

Phagocytic granulocytes

Front 14

Agglutinins are antibodies that…

Back 14

React with particulate antigen to cause agglutination

Front 15

Precipitins are antibodies that…

Back 15

React with soluble antigen to form a solid precipitate

Front 16

Lysoaymes…

Back 16

Destroy the mucopeptide layer of bacterial cell wall

Front 17

Sterilization is…

Back 17

Elimination of all pathogens and spores…nothing is living

Front 18

Disinfection is…

Back 18

Removal of harmful organisms…some are left living

Front 19

Autoclaving involves…

Back 19

High temp. and high pressure – 121oC for 15 min

Front 20

Iodine is a halogen that can…

Back 20

Combine irreversibly with proteins as an oxidant

Front 21

Lag phase of growth

Back 21

Cells are metabolically active and grow in size

Front 22

Log phase of growth

Back 22

Cells divide to increase number of cells

Front 23

Angular blepharoconjunctivitis is often caused by

Back 23

Moraxella sp.

Front 24

Causative agent of syphilis…

Back 24

Treponema pallidum – not highly contagious

Front 25

Primary syphilis

Back 25

Chancre sore at the site of entry

Front 26

Secondary syphilis

Back 26

Skin rash, hepatitis, conjunctivitis, fever, sore throat, iritis

Front 27

Tertiary syphilis

Back 27

Neurological or cardiovascular in nature

Front 28

Leprosy involves

Back 28

A loss in sensitivity in an area of skin

Front 29

Mycobacteria are

Back 29

Acid fast bacilli

Front 30

Mycoplasma bacteria are

Back 30

The smallest bacteria capable of reproduction

Front 31

Mycoplasma bacteria are

Back 31

Penicillin resistant b/c they can’t produce peptidoglycan

Front 32

Herpes viruses are

Back 32

Double stranded DNA

Front 33

HIV aka HTLV-III is a

Back 33

Single stranded RNA retrovirus

Front 35

T helper cells (CD4) secrete

Back 35

IL-2 which activates cytotoxic T cells (CD8)

Front 37

Nucleolus is the site of

Back 37

Ribosomal assembly

Front 38

RER is the site of

Back 38

Protein synthesis

Front 39

SER is the site of

Back 39

Lipid synthesis

Front 40

Microtubules are composed of

Back 40

Tubulin

Front 41

Microtubules provide a

Back 41

Supportive framework and a guide for organelle movement

Front 42

Microfilaments are made of

Back 42

Actin

Front 43

Microfilaments interact with

Back 43

Myosin

Front 44

Non polar amino acids are

Back 44

Glutamine and serine

Front 45

Polar amino acids are

Back 45

Asparagines and threonine

Front 46

Basic amino acids

Back 46

Histidine and threonine

Front 47

Acidic amino acids

Back 47

Aspartic acid and glutamic acid

Front 48

A peptide bond involves a linkage of

Back 48

CO-NH

Front 49

Globular proteins

Back 49

Tightly folded … water soluble…most enzymes are globular

Front 50

Fibrous proteins

Back 50

Water insoluble … serve a structural or protective function

Front 51

IgA

Back 51

Dimer…In secretions like saliva, sweat, tears, breast milk

Front 52

IgE

Back 52

Protects against parasites …hypersensitivity/ allergy rxns

Front 53

IgG

Back 53

Most abundant…crosses the placenta

Front 54

IgM

Back 54

Ist antibody to be produced…2-3 days after exposure

Front 55

Km, Michaelis constant

Back 55

Substrate concentration at which V = ½ Vmax

Front 56

Michaelis-menten equation

Back 56

V0 = (Vmax [S]) / (Km + [S])

Front 57

Competitive inhibitor

Back 57

Resembles the substrate…binds to the same site

Front 58

uncompetitive inhibitor

Back 58

Binds to the enzyme-substrate complex – not free enzyme

Front 59

Hemoglobin

Back 59

Two alpha and two beta subunits

Front 60

Oxygenation of hemoglobin

Back 60

Causes quaternary changes to the R state

Front 61

Deoxygenation of hemoglobin

Back 61

Causes iron to move into the heme plane – T state

Front 62

Structural changes of hemoglobin (R to T)

Back 62

Take place entirely across the alpha1-beta2 interface

Front 63

Lysozyme destroys the bond between

Back 63

NAM and NAG in the cell wall peptidoglycan

Front 64

Serine proteases include

Back 64

Trypsin and chymotrypsin

Front 65

Endergonic rxns

Back 65

Energy input required

Front 66

Exergonic rxns

Back 66

Energy produced

Front 67

G coupled rxns use energy from hydrolysis of

Back 67

ATP to GTP, for thermodynamically unfavorable reaction

Front 68

RED OX reactions

Back 68

Reducing agent (electron donor) oxidizing agent (acceptor)

Front 69

Henderson-Hasselbach reaction

Back 69

pH = pKa + log ([A-] / [HA])

Back 70

pH = - log [H+]

Back 71

pKa = - log (Ka)

Front 72

Acetyl CoA is the common product of

Back 72

Carbohydrate, fatty acid and amino acid catabolism

Front 73

Acetly carbons are oxidized

Back 73

To CO2 in the TCA cycle yielding NADH and FADH2

Front 74

NADH and FADH2 pass electrons to

Back 74

O2 producing H2O in oxidative phosphorylation

Front 75

Sucrose

Back 75

Glucose and fructose

Front 76

Lactose

Back 76

Glucose and galactose

Front 77

Maltose

Back 77

Glucose and glucose

Front 78

Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides…

Back 78

with one negatively charged carboxylate or sulfate group

Front 79

Examples of GAGs are

Back 79

Chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, heparin

Front 80

Glycolysis

Back 80

10 rxns in the cytosol…produces pyruvate and 2 ATP

Front 81

In the presence of oxygen Pyruvate in converted to

Back 81

Acetyl CoA and enters the TCA cycle in the mitochondria

Front 82

Pentose monophosphate shunt

Back 82

In cytosol…Generates reducing power

Front 83

Products of the Pentose phosphate pathway

Back 83

12 NADPH and ribose 5-monophosphate(for DNA,RNA etc)

Front 84

Glycogen is formed through the transfer of

Back 84

Glucose from UDP glucose to a growing chain

Front 85

Complexes of oxidative phosphorylation (OP)

Back 85

NADH-Q reductase, cytochrome reductase and oxidase

Front 86

OP pumps protons from

Back 86

The matrix side > cytosolic side of the inner mito membrane

Front 87

One molecule of glucose produces about

Back 87

30 ATP when completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O

Front 88

Phosphoglycerides are phospholipids with

Back 88

A glycerol backbone with alcohol and 2 fatty acids attached

Front 89

Sphingomyelins are phospholipids with

Back 89

A sphingosine backbone with phosphoryl choline and FA

Front 90

Cholesterol functions in

Back 90

Membrane fluidity and as a precursor for steroid hormones

Front 91

Beta oxidation is the process in which (occurs in mito)

Back 91

Fatty acids are broken down into acetyl CoA groups

Front 92

1st step of beta oxidation is a – dehydration

Back 92

results in a trans double bond and 1 FADH2

Front 93

2nd step of beta oxidation involves – hydration

Back 93

Addition of H2O over the double bond – yields an alcohol

Front 94

3rd step of beta oxidation in another – dehydration

Back 94

Dehydration – carbonyl oxidized to a ketone – yields 1NADH

Front 95

4th step of beta oxidation involves - transesterification

Back 95

CoA-SH – acetyl CoA groups break off – enter TCA cycle

Front 96

First intermediate in gluconeogenesis is

Back 96

Oxalacetate – last intermediate of TCA cycle

Front 97

Ketone bodies include

Back 97

Aectoacetic acid, beta hydroxybutyrate and acetone

Front 98

Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol as a

Back 98

4 step process – 2 carbons added at a time

Front 99

Molecule used in FA synthesis for chain lengthening

Back 99

Malonate (3 carbons) – binds to –SH of acyl carrier protein

Front 100

1st step of FA synthesis – condensation

Back 100

Acetyl group adds to malonyl CoA – CO2 leaves (4C piece)

Front 101

2nd step of FA synthesis – reduction

Back 101

Requires NADPH – reduces carbonyl to an alcohol

Front 102

3rd step of FA synthesis – dehydration

Back 102

Leaves a trans double bond b/t alpha and beta carbons

Front 103

4th step of FA synthesis – reduction

Back 103

Requires NADPH – leaves a 4C saturated acyl group

Front 104

FA elongation takes place in the

Back 104

Mitochondria or SER

Front 105

Precursor to steroid hormones…

Back 105

Cholesterol – side chains removed from D ring

Front 106

Steroid hormones include

Back 106

Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, progesterone

Front 107

Purines

Back 107

Adenine and guanine

Front 108

Pyrimidines

Back 108

Thymine (DNA only), cytosine and uracil (RNA only)

Front 109

Adenine binds to

Back 109

Thymine (2 H-bonds)

Front 110

Guanine binds to

Back 110

Cytocine (3 H-bonds)

Front 111

Under physiological conditions DNA exists in the

Back 111

B form

Front 112

Termination codons

Back 112

UAA, IGA, UAG

Front 113

Initiation codon

Back 113

AUG - methionine

Front 114

DNA is super coiled in a

Back 114

Left handed helix

Front 115

Ribose contains an

Back 115

-OH (hydroxyl) group at the 2’ position (makes it less stable)

Front 116

Initiation of transccription involves a

Back 116

DNA dependent RNA polymerase

Front 117

Transcription occurs at the

Back 117

5’ end of RNA or at the 3’ end of DNA

Front 118

RNA is synthesized in a

Back 118

5’ to 3’ direction…nucleotides added at the 3’ end

Front 119

Transcription unit extends from

Back 119

Promoter to terminator

Front 120

To help protect the mRNA from hydrolytic enzymes a

Back 120

5’ cap made of modified guanosine triphosphate is added

Front 121

Ribosomes attach to the

Back 121

5’ cap

Front 122

The 3’ end of mRNA is modified with a

Back 122

Poly-A tail made of 200 adenine nucleotides

Front 123

The RNA in the nucleus contains introns and exons

Back 123

Known as heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

Front 124

The introns are excised from the hnRNA forming

Back 124

mRNA that enters the cytoplasm

Front 125

60S ribosomal subunit contains

Back 125

5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA

Front 126

40S ribosomal subunit contains

Back 126

18 S rRNA

Front 127

5’ end of tRNA is

Back 127

Phosphorylated

Front 128

3’ end of tRNA has a (sequence CCA)

Back 128

Hydroxyl group and an amino acid attached

Front 129

DNA replication is

Back 129

Semi conservative and bi-directional

Front 130

DNA polymerases

Back 130

Catalyze polymerization (elongation in the 5’ to 3’ direction)

Front 131

DNA ligase acts to join the

Back 131

two DNA polynucleotides through a phosphodiester bond

Front 132

Primase synthesizes the

Back 132

RNA primers needed for replication of the lagging strand

Front 133

Replication fork is unzipped by the

Back 133

ATP driven helicases

Front 134

Single standed binding proteins (SSBs)

Back 134

Keep the DNA unwound and single stranded

Front 135

The leading stand is continuously synthesized by

Back 135

DNA polymerase III holoenzyme

Front 136

The gaps between Okazaki fragments are filled by

Back 136

DNA ploymerase I (also removes the RNA primer)

Front 137

Complementary base pairs are held together by

Back 137

Hydrogen bonds

Front 138

Nucleotides are held together by

Back 138

Covalent bonds

Front 139

Transcription (DNA > RNA) takes place in the

Back 139

Nucleus

Front 140

Translation (RNA > protein) takes place in the

Back 140

Cytoplasm

Front 141

Ribosomal subunits are made in the

Back 141

Nucleolus

Front 142

P site of a ribosome holds the

Back 142

Growing ploypeptide chain

Front 143

A site of a ribosome holds the

Back 143

tRNA holding the next amino acid

Front 144

Synthesis of the polypeptide chains begins with the

Back 144

Amino end and ends with the carboxyl end

Front 145

The first tRNA with methionine (mRNA AUG)

Back 145

Attaches to the P site

Front 146

The binding of a tRNA to the A site requires

Back 146

GTP energy

Front 147

Group I hormones…

Back 147

Intracellular receptors…affect gene expression (steroids)

Front 148

Group I hormones are…

Back 148

Lipophilic, have a long half life

Front 149

Group II hormones…

Back 149

Have membrane receptors and use intracellular messengers

Front 150

Group II hormones are…

Back 150

Hydrophilic and have a short half life, use 2nd messengers

Front 151

All receptors are made of …

Back 151

Proteins

Front 152

Cyclic AMP – second messenger

Back 152

Formed by cyclization of ATP by adenylate cyclase

Front 153

Cyclic GMP – second messenger

Back 153

Used by atriopeptins found in cardiac tissues (ANF)

Front 155

Protein components of muscle

Back 155

Actin (thin) and myosin (thick)

Front 156

Striated pattern fromed by the muscle filaments

Back 156

Are called sarcomeres

Front 157

Z line

Back 157

Where ends of actin meet – separates sarcomeres

Front 158

A band

Back 158

Dark bands – myosin overlapping actin

Front 159

H zone

Back 159

Myosin only

Front 160

I band

Back 160

Light bands – actin only

Front 161

Regulatory proteins bound to actin

Back 161

Troponin and tropomyocin

Front 162

In relaxed state…troponin holds tropomyosin

Back 162

In position to block myocin binding to actin

Front 163

When Ca++ levels increase…Ca++ binds to troponin

Back 163

Changes the complex to allow myocin to bind to actin

Front 164

Smooth muscle contains

Back 164

Calmodulin

Front 165

Ca++ activates calmodulin which then

Back 165

Phosphorylates myocin – allows myosin to bind actin

Front 166

Ca uptake stimulates the release of

Back 166

Ach into the neuromuscular juction

Front 167

Ach causes the membranes to leak Na+ causing

Back 167

Depolarization and opening of more Na+ and K+ channels

Front 168

The opening of the Na+ and K+ channels causes an

Back 168

Action potential to arise

Front 169

The action potential (AP)

Back 169

Propagates in both directions along the sarcolemma

Front 170

The AP opens Ca++ channels on the

Back 170

sarcoplasmic reticulum - increases Ca++ in the sacroplasm

Front 171

Ca++ diffuses into the sarcomeres and binds to

Back 171

Troponin molecules

Front 172

Myosin has

Back 172

ATP-ase activity

Front 173

When myosin attaches to actin it releases

Back 173

ADP + Pi

Front 174

After the contraction

Back 174

ATP binds to myosin to dissociate the filaments

Front 175

Rigor mortis occurs when

Back 175

ATP isn’t available and myosin stays bound to actin (~24 hr)

Front 176

The sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle is

Back 176

SER that removes Ca++ from the cytosol during relaxation

Front 178

NK cells have receptors for

Back 178

The Fc portion of antibodies that have bound to antigen

Front 179

LDLs are used to make

Back 179

triglycerides

Front 181

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Back 181

ACh and catecholamines

Front 182

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Back 182

Glycine and GABA

Front 184

Chromophore of rods and cones

Back 184

11-cis-retinal (light catching molecule)

Front 185

Light causes the 11-cis-retinal to changes to

Back 185

All-trans-retinal through photoisomerization

Front 186

The all trans form dissociates from the

Back 186

Opsin and is released into the cytosol

Front 187

The all-trans-retinal is converted back to 11-cis-retinal

Back 187

By retinal isomerases in the cytosol

Front 188

The all-trans-retinal activates the

Back 188

G protein, transducin which activates a G protein cascade

Front 189

The G protein cascade results in a

Back 189

Decrease in cGMP concentration in the cytosol

Front 190

cGMP is then released from its binding site on

Back 190

Sodium channels – causes Na+ channels to close

Front 191

The closing of the Na+ channels causes a

Back 191

Hyperpolarization of the membrane

Front 192

Hyperpolarization leads to the

Back 192

Transmission of the nerve pulse

Front 193

In the dark the outer segment of the photoreceptor is

Back 193

Highly permeable to Na+

Front 195

Proteins are made of

Back 195

23 types of amino acids

Front 196

Proteins account for

Back 196

50% of the organic material in the body (17% total BW)

Front 197

Proteins provide

Back 197

4.32 calories per gram

Front 198

Proteins should be about

Back 198

12-15% of the daily caloric intake

Front 199

Carbohydrates should be about

Back 199

50% of the daily caloric intake (600 calories of simple CHO)

Front 200

To prevent significant protein breakdown

Back 200

100 grams of CHO are needed everyday

Front 201

Carbohydrates provide

Back 201

4.19 calories per gram

Front 202

The essential fatty acids are

Back 202

Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid (provided by plants)

Front 203

Fats provide

Back 203

9.46 calories per gram

Front 204

8 original essential amino acids

Back 204

Lys, thr, met, val, isoleucine, tryptophan, leu, phenylalanine

Front 206

Thiamine deficiency leads to

Back 206

Beriberi – neurological disorder that leads to heart failure

Front 207

Ascorbic acid deficiency leads to

Back 207

Scurvy – rotting teeth and gums, spontaneous hemorrhage

Front 208

Riboflavin deficiency leads to

Back 208

Anemia, cracking of corners of mouth

Front 209

Folic acid deficiency leads to

Back 209

Anemia, weight loss and weakness

Front 210

Symptoms of vitamin A toxicity include

Back 210

Nystagmus, diplopia, ocular muscle palsies

Front 212

Kreb’s cycle takes place in the

Back 212

Inner compartment of the mitochondria – the matrix

Front 213

Resting membrane potential is

Back 213

– 65-85 mV…more Na+ outside the cell

Front 214

Tidal volume TV

Back 214

Volume of air that moves in and out during normal breathing

Front 215

Inspiratory reserve IRV

Back 215

Extra volume inspired above the tidal volume

Front 216

Expiratory reserve ERV

Back 216

Extra volume expired by use of active contraction

Front 217

Vital capacity

Back 217

Sume of TV, IRV, and ERV

Front 218

Residual volume

Back 218

The amount of air that remains after maximum expiration

Front 219

Anatomical dead space

Back 219

Where no air exchange takes place

Front 220

The primary unit of the lungs is the

Back 220

Alveoli – where actual gas exchange takes place

Front 221

O2 moves across alveoli walls by

Back 221

Diffusion, into capillary walls to the blood

Front 222

O2 concentration is greatest in the

Back 222

Alveoli

Front 223

CO2 concentration is greatest in the

Back 223

Blood

Front 224

CO2 stimulates the breathing center in the

Back 224

Medulla – hypoxia accelerates breathing

Front 225

CO2 reacts with H2O to form

Back 225

Bicarbonate ions

Front 226

The control center for breathing is the

Back 226

Medulla oblongata

Front 227

Hering-brever reflexes occur when the lungs expand so

Back 227

much that baroreceptors send inhibitory signals to the brain

Front 228

Maintaining rhythmicity of respiration is up to the

Back 228

Pneumotaxic center in the upper pons

Front 229

The cerebral cortex controls the

Back 229

Voluntary aspects of breathing

Front 231

The pyloric sphincter is between the

Back 231

Stomach and small intestine

Front 232

The Duodenum of the small intestine

Back 232

Receives chyme from the pyloric end of the stomach

Front 233

Most digestion occurs in the

Back 233

Duodenum

Front 234

Absorption of digested food occurs in the

Back 234

Jejunum and the ileum of the small intestine

Front 235

Segmentation contraction of small intestine

Back 235

Mixing movement – rhythmic contration

Front 236

Peristalsis

Back 236

Propulsive movement

Front 237

Chief (peptic) (zygomatic) cells of the stomach secrete

Back 237

Pepsinogen (precursor to pepsin)

Front 238

Parietal (oxyntic) cells secrete

Back 238

HCl – which activates pepsinogen to pepsin

Front 239

Parietal cells also secrete

Back 239

Intrinsic factor which is necessary for B12 absorption

Front 240

Mucous cells secrete

Back 240

A protective, alkaline mucus – protects walls from HCl

Front 241

G cells are epithelial endocrine cells (anteroendocrine cells ) that secrete

Back 241

Gastrin (a hormone) inhibits HCl secretion from parietal cells

Front 242

Other epithelial endocrine cells secrete somatostatin

Back 242

Which inhibits secretion from parietal, chief and G cells

Front 243

Pancreatic enzymes require a

Back 243

Neutral pH environment to function

Front 244

The hormone CCK from the intestinal mucosa

Back 244

Causes the gall bladder to contract

Front 246

Isometric contraction – muscle length stays the same

Back 246

Energy released at heat – produces tension in the muscle

Front 247

Isotonic contraction – tension stays the same

Back 247

Muscle shortens to move a load – work is done

Front 248

Golgi tendon organ

Back 248

Sense the degree of stretch

Front 250

Protein concentrations in the body

Back 250

Cells 4X > plasma > interstitial fluid

Front 252

Na+ is actively transported out of the

Back 252

Proximal convoluted tubule (Cl- passively follows)

Front 253

Water follows tha Na+ and the Cl- resulting in

Back 253

65% of the water being reabsorbed in the PCT

Front 254

In the descending loop of Henle

Back 254

H2O and salt passively leave the tubule

Front 255

In the ascending loop of Henle

Back 255

Cl- and Na+ are actively pumped out of the tubule

Front 256

The ascending loop of Henle is

Back 256

Impermeable to water (tubule fluid is more dilute)

Front 257

The distal convoluted tubule is also

Back 257

Impermeable to water

Front 258

The collecting tubule is

Back 258

Permeable to water but NOT to salt

Front 259

Permeability of the collecting duct is controlled by

Back 259

ADH – released in response to increased solute conc.

Front 260

ADH comes from the

Back 260

Posterior pituitary – causes reabsorption of water

Front 261

Aldosterone …

Back 261

Promotes Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion b

Front 262

The actions of aldosterone

Back 262

Increase blood volume and pressure

Front 263

Bicarbonate is converted to

Back 263

Carbonic acid to allow it to pass the renal tubule wall

Front 265

Cardiac cycle is initiated by

Back 265

Impulse from the SA (sinoatrial) node

Front 266

Systolic period begins with the

Back 266

First heart sound and ends with the second

Front 267

Diastole begins with the

Back 267

Second heart sound and ends with the first

Front 268

The cardiac actions potential lasts

Back 268

~ 300 msec (long)

Front 269

The rate that the heart beats is determined by the

Back 269

Rate of diastolic depolarization

Front 270

Action potential goes from the atrium to the ventricle

Back 270

Via the AV (atrioventricular) node

Front 271

The actions potential continues through the

Back 271

Bindle of His and the purkinje fibers

Front 272

P wave

Back 272

Depolarization of the atrial muscle

Front 273

QRS complex

Back 273

Depolarization of the ventricles (repolarization of atria)

Front 274

CO (cardiac output) =

Back 274

SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)

Front 275

Blood flow =

Back 275

Arterial pressure / resistance

Front 276

The greatest pressure drop occurs at the level of the

Back 276

Arterioles (large resistance to flow at this point)

Front 277

Pulsatile pressure in arteries =

Back 277

Systolic pressure – diastolic pressure

Front 278

Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = (related to blood flow)

Back 278

1/3(pulse pressure) + diastolic pressure

Front 279

Peripheral resistance is determined by

Back 279

Blood viscosity and arterial diameter

Front 280

Resting vascular tone is maintained by continuous

Back 280

Sympathetic activity from vasomotor centers (in medulla)

Front 281

Epinephrine binds to

Back 281

Beta receptors on heart, skeletal muscle, liver

Front 282

Angiotensin is a

Back 282

Potent vasoconstrictor

Front 283

Atrial natriuretic factor (peptide) is a

Back 283

Potent vasodilator, also cause excretion of NaCl and H2O

Front 284

Baroreceptors in the wall of the aorta are

Back 284

Stretch receptors that respond to arterial pressure changes

Front 285

Increased baroreceptor activity results in a decreased

Back 285

Sympathetic activity, Decreases HR, contractility and CO

Front 287

Average blood volume is

Back 287

5 liters

Front 288

Specific gravity of whole blood is

Back 288

1.055 (3-4x as viscous as water)

Front 289

Normal sed rate is

Back 289

2-10 mm/hr

Front 290

Normal adult hematocrit is

Back 290

~40%

Front 292

Hormones are secreted by

Back 292

Ductless glands, directly into the vascular system

Front 293

Anterior pituitary horm. (chemical hypothalamic control)

Back 293

ACTH, TSH, GH, LH, FSH, prolactin

Front 294

Posterior pituitary horm. (hormonal/neuronal control)

Back 294

ADH (vasopressin), oxytocin

Front 295

Pituitary gland produces

Back 295

tropic hormones

Front 296

ACTH – (adrenocorticotropic hormone) promotes

Back 296

growth of adrenal cortex, of corticosteroid secretion

Front 297

FSH – (follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates

Back 297

Graffian follicle growth and maturity, follicles to release estrogen and in males stimulates development of seminiferous tubules and maintains spermatogenesis

Front 298

LH – Luteinizing hormone) works with FSH to

Back 298

Stimulate complete maturation of the follicle, brings about ovulation and stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and estrogen, in males cause the secretion of testosterone from the testes

Front 299

Adrenal cortex responds to ACTH from the anterior pituitary and produces…

Back 299

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) , glucocorticoids (hydrocortisone) , androgens (estrogen)

Front 300

Adrenal medulla responds to the sympathetic nervous system and produces…

Back 300

Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

Front 301

TRH (from hypothalamus) stimulates release of

Back 301

TSH from anterior pituitary

Front 302

T3, T4 are released by thyroid follicles in response to

Back 302

TSH, increase metabolic rate everywhere except the brain

Front 303

T3 and T4 act by negative feedback on the

Back 303

Anterior pituitary to decrease TSH release

Front 305

Alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans secrete

Back 305

Glucagon – increases glycogenolysis to increase BS

Front 306

Beta cells of the Islets of Langehans secrete

Back 306

Insulin – promotes glucose uptake into cells, fat anabolism

Front 307

Increase in glucose causes an

Back 307

Increase in insulin and a decrease in glucagons

Front 308

Increase in amino acids causes an

Back 308

Increase of both insulin and glucagon

Front 309

Glucagons secretion is stimulated by

Back 309

Sympathetic NS

Front 310

Insulin secretion is stimulated by

Back 310

Parasympathetic NS

Front 311

Bacteria are classified in which kingdom?

Back 311

Monera

Front 312

Protozoa are…

Back 312

Unicellular, eukaryotic

Front 313

Mastigophores are protozoa that use…

Back 313

Flagella

Front 314

Ciliophores are protozoa that use…

Back 314

Cilia

Front 315

Nematode aka

Back 315

Round worm

Front 316

Cestode aka

Back 316

Tape worm

Front 317

Symbiosis

Back 317

Close association of two dissimilar environments

Front 318

Commensalism

Back 318

Symbiosis when one organism gains and the other in unharmed

Front 319

Mutualism

Back 319

Symbiosis when both organisms gain from the association

Front 320

Parasitism

Back 320

One organism adversely affects the other

Front 321

Pathogenicity

Back 321

Ability of a pathogen to produce disease

Front 322

Virulence

Back 322

Degree of pathogenicity

Front 323

Eosiniphils and neutrophils are

Back 323

Phagocytic granulocytes

Front 324

Agglutinins are antibodies that…

Back 324

React with particulate antigen to cause agglutination

Front 325

Precipitins are antibodies that…

Back 325

React with soluble antigen to form a solid precipitate

Front 326

Lysoaymes…

Back 326

Destroy the mucopeptide layer of bacterial cell wall

Front 327

Sterilization is…

Back 327

Elimination of all pathogens and spores…nothing is living

Front 328

Disinfection is…

Back 328

Removal of harmful organisms…some are left living

Front 329

Autoclaving involves…

Back 329

High temp. and high pressure – 121oC for 15 min

Front 330

Iodine is a halogen that can…

Back 330

Combine irreversibly with proteins as an oxidant

Front 331

Lag phase of growth

Back 331

Cells are metabolically active and grow in size

Front 332

Log phase of growth

Back 332

Cells divide to increase number of cells

Front 333

Angular blepharoconjunctivitis is often caused by

Back 333

Moraxella sp.

Front 334

Causative agent of syphilis…

Back 334

Treponema pallidum – not highly contagious

Front 335

Primary syphilis

Back 335

Chancre sore at the site of entry

Front 336

Secondary syphilis

Back 336

Skin rash, hepatitis, conjunctivitis, fever, sore throat, iritis

Front 337

Tertiary syphilis

Back 337

Neurological or cardiovascular in nature

Front 338

Leprosy involves

Back 338

A loss in sensitivity in an area of skin

Front 339

Mycobacteria are

Back 339

Acid fast bacilli

Front 340

Mycoplasma bacteria are

Back 340

The smallest bacteria capable of reproduction

Front 341

Mycoplasma bacteria are

Back 341

Penicillin resistant b/c they can’t produce peptidoglycan

Front 342

Herpes viruses are

Back 342

Double stranded DNA

Front 343

HIV aka HTLV-III is a

Back 343

Single stranded RNA retrovirus

Front 345

T helper cells (CD4) secrete

Back 345

IL-2 which activates cytotoxic T cells (CD8)

Front 347

Nucleolus is the site of

Back 347

Ribosomal assembly

Front 348

RER is the site of

Back 348

Protein synthesis

Front 349

SER is the site of

Back 349

Lipid synthesis

Front 350

Microtubules are composed of

Back 350

Tubulin

Front 351

Microtubules provide a

Back 351

Supportive framework and a guide for organelle movement

Front 352

Microfilaments are made of

Back 352

Actin

Front 353

Microfilaments interact with

Back 353

Myosin

Front 354

Non polar amino acids are

Back 354

Glutamine and serine

Front 355

Polar amino acids are

Back 355

Asparagines and threonine

Front 356

Basic amino acids

Back 356

Histidine and threonine

Front 357

Acidic amino acids

Back 357

Aspartic acid and glutamic acid

Front 358

A peptide bond involves a linkage of

Back 358

CO-NH

Front 359

Globular proteins

Back 359

Tightly folded … water soluble…most enzymes are globular

Front 360

Fibrous proteins

Back 360

Water insoluble … serve a structural or protective function

Front 361

IgA

Back 361

Dimer…In secretions like saliva, sweat, tears, breast milk

Front 362

IgE

Back 362

Protects against parasites …hypersensitivity/ allergy rxns

Front 363

IgG

Back 363

Most abundant…crosses the placenta

Front 364

IgM

Back 364

Ist antibody to be produced…2-3 days after exposure

Front 365

Km, Michaelis constant

Back 365

Substrate concentration at which V = ½ Vmax

Front 366

Michaelis-menten equation

Back 366

V0 = (Vmax [S]) / (Km + [S])

Front 367

Competitive inhibitor

Back 367

Resembles the substrate…binds to the same site

Front 368

uncompetitive inhibitor

Back 368

Binds to the enzyme-substrate complex – not free enzyme

Front 369

Hemoglobin

Back 369

Two alpha and two beta subunits

Front 370

Oxygenation of hemoglobin

Back 370

Causes quaternary changes to the R state

Front 371

Deoxygenation of hemoglobin

Back 371

Causes iron to move into the heme plane – T state

Front 372

Structural changes of hemoglobin (R to T)

Back 372

Take place entirely across the alpha1-beta2 interface

Front 373

Lysozyme destroys the bond between

Back 373

NAM and NAG in the cell wall peptidoglycan

Front 374

Serine proteases include

Back 374

Trypsin and chymotrypsin

Front 375

Endergonic rxns

Back 375

Energy input required

Front 376

Exergonic rxns

Back 376

Energy produced

Front 377

G coupled rxns use energy from hydrolysis of

Back 377

ATP to GTP, for thermodynamically unfavorable reaction

Front 378

RED OX reactions

Back 378

Reducing agent (electron donor) oxidizing agent (acceptor)

Front 379

Henderson-Hasselbach reaction

Back 379

pH = pKa + log ([A-] / [HA])

Back 380

pH = - log [H+]

Back 381

pKa = - log (Ka)

Front 382

Acetyl CoA is the common product of

Back 382

Carbohydrate, fatty acid and amino acid catabolism

Front 383

Acetly carbons are oxidized

Back 383

To CO2 in the TCA cycle yielding NADH and FADH2

Front 384

NADH and FADH2 pass electrons to

Back 384

O2 producing H2O in oxidative phosphorylation

Front 385

Sucrose

Back 385

Glucose and fructose

Front 386

Lactose

Back 386

Glucose and galactose

Front 387

Maltose

Back 387

Glucose and glucose

Front 388

Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides…

Back 388

with one negatively charged carboxylate or sulfate group

Front 389

Examples of GAGs are

Back 389

Chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, heparin

Front 390

Glycolysis

Back 390

10 rxns in the cytosol…produces pyruvate and 2 ATP

Front 391

In the presence of oxygen Pyruvate in converted to

Back 391

Acetyl CoA and enters the TCA cycle in the mitochondria

Front 392

Pentose monophosphate shunt

Back 392

In cytosol…Generates reducing power

Front 393

Products of the Pentose phosphate pathway

Back 393

12 NADPH and ribose 5-monophosphate(for DNA,RNA etc)

Front 394

Glycogen is formed through the transfer of

Back 394

Glucose from UDP glucose to a growing chain

Front 395

Complexes of oxidative phosphorylation (OP)

Back 395

NADH-Q reductase, cytochrome reductase and oxidase

Front 396

OP pumps protons from

Back 396

The matrix side > cytosolic side of the inner mito membrane

Front 397

One molecule of glucose produces about

Back 397

30 ATP when completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O

Front 398

Phosphoglycerides are phospholipids with

Back 398

A glycerol backbone with alcohol and 2 fatty acids attached

Front 399

Sphingomyelins are phospholipids with

Back 399

A sphingosine backbone with phosphoryl choline and FA

Front 400

Cholesterol functions in

Back 400

Membrane fluidity and as a precursor for steroid hormones

Front 401

Beta oxidation is the process in which (occurs in mito)

Back 401

Fatty acids are broken down into acetyl CoA groups

Front 402

1st step of beta oxidation is a – dehydration

Back 402

results in a trans double bond and 1 FADH2

Front 403

2nd step of beta oxidation involves – hydration

Back 403

Addition of H2O over the double bond – yields an alcohol

Front 404

3rd step of beta oxidation in another – dehydration

Back 404

Dehydration – carbonyl oxidized to a ketone – yields 1NADH

Front 405

4th step of beta oxidation involves - transesterification

Back 405

CoA-SH – acetyl CoA groups break off – enter TCA cycle

Front 406

First intermediate in gluconeogenesis is

Back 406

Oxalacetate – last intermediate of TCA cycle

Front 407

Ketone bodies include

Back 407

Aectoacetic acid, beta hydroxybutyrate and acetone

Front 408

Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol as a

Back 408

4 step process – 2 carbons added at a time

Front 409

Molecule used in FA synthesis for chain lengthening

Back 409

Malonate (3 carbons) – binds to –SH of acyl carrier protein

Front 410

1st step of FA synthesis – condensation

Back 410

Acetyl group adds to malonyl CoA – CO2 leaves (4C piece)

Front 411

2nd step of FA synthesis – reduction

Back 411

Requires NADPH – reduces carbonyl to an alcohol

Front 412

3rd step of FA synthesis – dehydration

Back 412

Leaves a trans double bond b/t alpha and beta carbons

Front 413

4th step of FA synthesis – reduction

Back 413

Requires NADPH – leaves a 4C saturated acyl group

Front 414

FA elongation takes place in the

Back 414

Mitochondria or SER

Front 415

Precursor to steroid hormones…

Back 415

Cholesterol – side chains removed from D ring

Front 416

Steroid hormones include

Back 416

Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, progesterone

Front 417

Purines

Back 417

Adenine and guanine

Front 418

Pyrimidines

Back 418

Thymine (DNA only), cytosine and uracil (RNA only)

Front 419

Adenine binds to

Back 419

Thymine (2 H-bonds)

Front 420

Guanine binds to

Back 420

Cytocine (3 H-bonds)

Front 421

Under physiological conditions DNA exists in the

Back 421

B form

Front 422

Termination codons

Back 422

UAA, IGA, UAG

Front 423

Initiation codon

Back 423

AUG - methionine

Front 424

DNA is super coiled in a

Back 424

Left handed helix

Front 425

Ribose contains an

Back 425

-OH (hydroxyl) group at the 2’ position (makes it less stable)

Front 426

Initiation of transccription involves a

Back 426

DNA dependent RNA polymerase

Front 427

Transcription occurs at the

Back 427

5’ end of RNA or at the 3’ end of DNA

Front 428

RNA is synthesized in a

Back 428

5’ to 3’ direction…nucleotides added at the 3’ end

Front 429

Transcription unit extends from

Back 429

Promoter to terminator

Front 430

To help protect the mRNA from hydrolytic enzymes a

Back 430

5’ cap made of modified guanosine triphosphate is added

Front 431

Ribosomes attach to the

Back 431

5’ cap

Front 432

The 3’ end of mRNA is modified with a

Back 432

Poly-A tail made of 200 adenine nucleotides

Front 433

The RNA in the nucleus contains introns and exons

Back 433

Known as heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

Front 434

The introns are excised from the hnRNA forming

Back 434

mRNA that enters the cytoplasm

Front 435

60S ribosomal subunit contains

Back 435

5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA

Front 436

40S ribosomal subunit contains

Back 436

18 S rRNA

Front 437

5’ end of tRNA is

Back 437

Phosphorylated

Front 438

3’ end of tRNA has a (sequence CCA)

Back 438

Hydroxyl group and an amino acid attached

Front 439

DNA replication is

Back 439

Semi conservative and bi-directional

Front 440

DNA polymerases

Back 440

Catalyze polymerization (elongation in the 5’ to 3’ direction)

Front 441

DNA ligase acts to join the

Back 441

two DNA polynucleotides through a phosphodiester bond

Front 442

Primase synthesizes the

Back 442

RNA primers needed for replication of the lagging strand

Front 443

Replication fork is unzipped by the

Back 443

ATP driven helicases

Front 444

Single standed binding proteins (SSBs)

Back 444

Keep the DNA unwound and single stranded

Front 445

The leading stand is continuously synthesized by

Back 445

DNA polymerase III holoenzyme

Front 446

The gaps between Okazaki fragments are filled by

Back 446

DNA ploymerase I (also removes the RNA primer)

Front 447

Complementary base pairs are held together by

Back 447

Hydrogen bonds

Front 448

Nucleotides are held together by

Back 448

Covalent bonds

Front 449

Transcription (DNA > RNA) takes place in the

Back 449

Nucleus

Front 450

Translation (RNA > protein) takes place in the

Back 450

Cytoplasm

Front 451

Ribosomal subunits are made in the

Back 451

Nucleolus

Front 452

P site of a ribosome holds the

Back 452

Growing ploypeptide chain

Front 453

A site of a ribosome holds the

Back 453

tRNA holding the next amino acid

Front 454

Synthesis of the polypeptide chains begins with the

Back 454

Amino end and ends with the carboxyl end

Front 455

The first tRNA with methionine (mRNA AUG)

Back 455

Attaches to the P site

Front 456

The binding of a tRNA to the A site requires

Back 456

GTP energy

Front 457

Group I hormones…

Back 457

Intracellular receptors…affect gene expression (steroids)

Front 458

Group I hormones are…

Back 458

Lipophilic, have a long half life

Front 459

Group II hormones…

Back 459

Have membrane receptors and use intracellular messengers

Front 460

Group II hormones are…

Back 460

Hydrophilic and have a short half life, use 2nd messengers

Front 461

All receptors are made of …

Back 461

Proteins

Front 462

Cyclic AMP – second messenger

Back 462

Formed by cyclization of ATP by adenylate cyclase

Front 463

Cyclic GMP – second messenger

Back 463

Used by atriopeptins found in cardiac tissues (ANF)

Front 465

Protein components of muscle

Back 465

Actin (thin) and myosin (thick)

Front 466

Striated pattern fromed by the muscle filaments

Back 466

Are called sarcomeres

Front 467

Z line

Back 467

Where ends of actin meet – separates sarcomeres

Front 468

A band

Back 468

Dark bands – myosin overlapping actin

Front 469

H zone

Back 469

Myosin only

Front 470

I band

Back 470

Light bands – actin only

Front 471

Regulatory proteins bound to actin

Back 471

Troponin and tropomyocin

Front 472

In relaxed state…troponin holds tropomyosin

Back 472

In position to block myocin binding to actin

Front 473

When Ca++ levels increase…Ca++ binds to troponin

Back 473

Changes the complex to allow myocin to bind to actin

Front 474

Smooth muscle contains

Back 474

Calmodulin

Front 475

Ca++ activates calmodulin which then

Back 475

Phosphorylates myocin – allows myosin to bind actin

Front 476

Ca uptake stimulates the release of

Back 476

Ach into the neuromuscular juction

Front 477

Ach causes the membranes to leak Na+ causing

Back 477

Depolarization and opening of more Na+ and K+ channels

Front 478

The opening of the Na+ and K+ channels causes an

Back 478

Action potential to arise

Front 479

The action potential (AP)

Back 479

Propagates in both directions along the sarcolemma

Front 480

The AP opens Ca++ channels on the

Back 480

sarcoplasmic reticulum - increases Ca++ in the sacroplasm

Front 481

Ca++ diffuses into the sarcomeres and binds to

Back 481

Troponin molecules

Front 482

Myosin has

Back 482

ATP-ase activity

Front 483

When myosin attaches to actin it releases

Back 483

ADP + Pi

Front 484

After the contraction

Back 484

ATP binds to myosin to dissociate the filaments

Front 485

Rigor mortis occurs when

Back 485

ATP isn’t available and myosin stays bound to actin (~24 hr)

Front 486

The sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle is

Back 486

SER that removes Ca++ from the cytosol during relaxation

Front 488

NK cells have receptors for

Back 488

The Fc portion of antibodies that have bound to antigen

Front 489

LDLs are used to make

Back 489

triglycerides

Front 491

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Back 491

ACh and catecholamines

Front 492

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Back 492

Glycine and GABA

Front 494

Chromophore of rods and cones

Back 494

11-cis-retinal (light catching molecule)

Front 495

Light causes the 11-cis-retinal to changes to

Back 495

All-trans-retinal through photoisomerization

Front 496

The all trans form dissociates from the

Back 496

Opsin and is released into the cytosol

Front 497

The all-trans-retinal is converted back to 11-cis-retinal

Back 497

By retinal isomerases in the cytosol

Front 498

The all-trans-retinal activates the

Back 498

G protein, transducin which activates a G protein cascade

Front 499

The G protein cascade results in a

Back 499

Decrease in cGMP concentration in the cytosol

Front 500

cGMP is then released from its binding site on

Back 500

Sodium channels – causes Na+ channels to close

Front 501

The closing of the Na+ channels causes a

Back 501

Hyperpolarization of the membrane

Front 502

Hyperpolarization leads to the

Back 502

Transmission of the nerve pulse

Front 503

In the dark the outer segment of the photoreceptor is

Back 503

Highly permeable to Na+

Front 505

Proteins are made of

Back 505

23 types of amino acids

Front 506

Proteins account for

Back 506

50% of the organic material in the body (17% total BW)

Front 507

Bacteria are classified in which kingdom?

Back 507

Monera

Front 508

Protozoa are…

Back 508

Unicellular, eukaryotic

Front 509

Mastigophores are protozoa that use…

Back 509

Flagella

Front 510

Ciliophores are protozoa that use…

Back 510

Cilia

Front 511

Nematode aka

Back 511

Round worm

Front 512

Cestode aka

Back 512

Tape worm

Front 513

Symbiosis

Back 513

Close association of two dissimilar environments

Front 514

Commensalism

Back 514

Symbiosis when one organism gains and the other in unharmed

Front 515

Mutualism

Back 515

Symbiosis when both organisms gain from the association

Front 516

Parasitism

Back 516

One organism adversely affects the other

Front 517

Pathogenicity

Back 517

Ability of a pathogen to produce disease

Front 518

Virulence

Back 518

Degree of pathogenicity

Front 519

Eosiniphils and neutrophils are

Back 519

Phagocytic granulocytes

Front 520

Agglutinins are antibodies that…

Back 520

React with particulate antigen to cause agglutination

Front 521

Precipitins are antibodies that…

Back 521

React with soluble antigen to form a solid precipitate

Front 522

Lysoaymes…

Back 522

Destroy the mucopeptide layer of bacterial cell wall

Front 523

Sterilization is…

Back 523

Elimination of all pathogens and spores…nothing is living

Front 524

Disinfection is…

Back 524

Removal of harmful organisms…some are left living

Front 525

Autoclaving involves…

Back 525

High temp. and high pressure – 121oC for 15 min

Front 526

Iodine is a halogen that can…

Back 526

Combine irreversibly with proteins as an oxidant

Front 527

Lag phase of growth

Back 527

Cells are metabolically active and grow in size

Front 528

Log phase of growth

Back 528

Cells divide to increase number of cells

Front 529

Angular blepharoconjunctivitis is often caused by

Back 529

Moraxella sp.

Front 530

Causative agent of syphilis…

Back 530

Treponema pallidum – not highly contagious

Front 531

Primary syphilis

Back 531

Chancre sore at the site of entry

Front 532

Secondary syphilis

Back 532

Skin rash, hepatitis, conjunctivitis, fever, sore throat, iritis

Front 533

Tertiary syphilis

Back 533

Neurological or cardiovascular in nature

Front 534

Leprosy involves

Back 534

A loss in sensitivity in an area of skin

Front 535

Mycobacteria are

Back 535

Acid fast bacilli

Front 536

Mycoplasma bacteria are

Back 536

The smallest bacteria capable of reproduction

Front 537

Mycoplasma bacteria are

Back 537

Penicillin resistant b/c they can’t produce peptidoglycan

Front 538

Herpes viruses are

Back 538

Double stranded DNA

Front 539

HIV aka HTLV-III is a

Back 539

Single stranded RNA retrovirus

Front 541

T helper cells (CD4) secrete

Back 541

IL-2 which activates cytotoxic T cells (CD8)

Front 543

Nucleolus is the site of

Back 543

Ribosomal assembly

Front 544

RER is the site of

Back 544

Protein synthesis

Front 545

SER is the site of

Back 545

Lipid synthesis

Front 546

Microtubules are composed of

Back 546

Tubulin

Front 547

Microtubules provide a

Back 547

Supportive framework and a guide for organelle movement

Front 548

Microfilaments are made of

Back 548

Actin

Front 549

Microfilaments interact with

Back 549

Myosin

Front 550

Non polar amino acids are

Back 550

Glutamine and serine

Front 551

Polar amino acids are

Back 551

Asparagines and threonine

Front 552

Basic amino acids

Back 552

Histidine and threonine

Front 553

Acidic amino acids

Back 553

Aspartic acid and glutamic acid

Front 554

A peptide bond involves a linkage of

Back 554

CO-NH

Front 555

Globular proteins

Back 555

Tightly folded … water soluble…most enzymes are globular

Front 556

Fibrous proteins

Back 556

Water insoluble … serve a structural or protective function

Front 557

IgA

Back 557

Dimer…In secretions like saliva, sweat, tears, breast milk

Front 558

IgE

Back 558

Protects against parasites …hypersensitivity/ allergy rxns

Front 559

IgG

Back 559

Most abundant…crosses the placenta

Front 560

IgM

Back 560

Ist antibody to be produced…2-3 days after exposure

Front 561

Km, Michaelis constant

Back 561

Substrate concentration at which V = ½ Vmax

Front 562

Michaelis-menten equation

Back 562

V0 = (Vmax [S]) / (Km + [S])

Front 563

Competitive inhibitor

Back 563

Resembles the substrate…binds to the same site

Front 564

uncompetitive inhibitor

Back 564

Binds to the enzyme-substrate complex – not free enzyme

Front 565

Hemoglobin

Back 565

Two alpha and two beta subunits

Front 566

Oxygenation of hemoglobin

Back 566

Causes quaternary changes to the R state

Front 567

Deoxygenation of hemoglobin

Back 567

Causes iron to move into the heme plane – T state

Front 568

Structural changes of hemoglobin (R to T)

Back 568

Take place entirely across the alpha1-beta2 interface

Front 569

Lysozyme destroys the bond between

Back 569

NAM and NAG in the cell wall peptidoglycan

Front 570

Serine proteases include

Back 570

Trypsin and chymotrypsin

Front 571

Endergonic rxns

Back 571

Energy input required

Front 572

Exergonic rxns

Back 572

Energy produced

Front 573

G coupled rxns use energy from hydrolysis of

Back 573

ATP to GTP, for thermodynamically unfavorable reaction

Front 574

RED OX reactions

Back 574

Reducing agent (electron donor) oxidizing agent (acceptor)

Front 575

Henderson-Hasselbach reaction

Back 575

pH = pKa + log ([A-] / [HA])

Back 576

pH = - log [H+]

Back 577

pKa = - log (Ka)

Front 578

Acetyl CoA is the common product of

Back 578

Carbohydrate, fatty acid and amino acid catabolism

Front 579

Acetly carbons are oxidized

Back 579

To CO2 in the TCA cycle yielding NADH and FADH2

Front 580

NADH and FADH2 pass electrons to

Back 580

O2 producing H2O in oxidative phosphorylation

Front 581

Sucrose

Back 581

Glucose and fructose

Front 582

Lactose

Back 582

Glucose and galactose

Front 583

Maltose

Back 583

Glucose and glucose

Front 584

Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides…

Back 584

with one negatively charged carboxylate or sulfate group

Front 585

Examples of GAGs are

Back 585

Chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, heparin

Front 586

Glycolysis

Back 586

10 rxns in the cytosol…produces pyruvate and 2 ATP

Front 587

In the presence of oxygen Pyruvate in converted to

Back 587

Acetyl CoA and enters the TCA cycle in the mitochondria

Front 588

Pentose monophosphate shunt

Back 588

In cytosol…Generates reducing power

Front 589

Products of the Pentose phosphate pathway

Back 589

12 NADPH and ribose 5-monophosphate(for DNA,RNA etc)

Front 590

Glycogen is formed through the transfer of

Back 590

Glucose from UDP glucose to a growing chain

Front 591

Complexes of oxidative phosphorylation (OP)

Back 591

NADH-Q reductase, cytochrome reductase and oxidase

Front 592

OP pumps protons from

Back 592

The matrix side > cytosolic side of the inner mito membrane

Front 593

One molecule of glucose produces about

Back 593

30 ATP when completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O

Front 594

Phosphoglycerides are phospholipids with

Back 594

A glycerol backbone with alcohol and 2 fatty acids attached

Front 595

Sphingomyelins are phospholipids with

Back 595

A sphingosine backbone with phosphoryl choline and FA

Front 596

Cholesterol functions in

Back 596

Membrane fluidity and as a precursor for steroid hormones

Front 597

Beta oxidation is the process in which (occurs in mito)

Back 597

Fatty acids are broken down into acetyl CoA groups

Front 598

1st step of beta oxidation is a – dehydration

Back 598

results in a trans double bond and 1 FADH2

Front 599

2nd step of beta oxidation involves – hydration

Back 599

Addition of H2O over the double bond – yields an alcohol

Front 600

3rd step of beta oxidation in another – dehydration

Back 600

Dehydration – carbonyl oxidized to a ketone – yields 1NADH

Front 601

4th step of beta oxidation involves - transesterification

Back 601

CoA-SH – acetyl CoA groups break off – enter TCA cycle

Front 602

First intermediate in gluconeogenesis is

Back 602

Oxalacetate – last intermediate of TCA cycle

Front 603

Ketone bodies include

Back 603

Aectoacetic acid, beta hydroxybutyrate and acetone

Front 604

Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol as a

Back 604

4 step process – 2 carbons added at a time

Front 605

Molecule used in FA synthesis for chain lengthening

Back 605

Malonate (3 carbons) – binds to –SH of acyl carrier protein

Front 606

1st step of FA synthesis – condensation

Back 606

Acetyl group adds to malonyl CoA – CO2 leaves (4C piece)

Front 607

2nd step of FA synthesis – reduction

Back 607

Requires NADPH – reduces carbonyl to an alcohol

Front 608

3rd step of FA synthesis – dehydration

Back 608

Leaves a trans double bond b/t alpha and beta carbons

Front 609

4th step of FA synthesis – reduction

Back 609

Requires NADPH – leaves a 4C saturated acyl group

Front 610

FA elongation takes place in the

Back 610

Mitochondria or SER

Front 611

Precursor to steroid hormones…

Back 611

Cholesterol – side chains removed from D ring

Front 612

Steroid hormones include

Back 612

Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, progesterone

Front 613

Purines

Back 613

Adenine and guanine

Front 614

Pyrimidines

Back 614

Thymine (DNA only), cytosine and uracil (RNA only)

Front 615

Adenine binds to

Back 615

Thymine (2 H-bonds)

Front 616

Guanine binds to

Back 616

Cytocine (3 H-bonds)

Front 617

Under physiological conditions DNA exists in the

Back 617

B form

Front 618

Termination codons

Back 618

UAA, IGA, UAG

Front 619

Initiation codon

Back 619

AUG - methionine

Front 620

DNA is super coiled in a

Back 620

Left handed helix

Front 621

Ribose contains an

Back 621

-OH (hydroxyl) group at the 2’ position (makes it less stable)

Front 622

Initiation of transccription involves a

Back 622

DNA dependent RNA polymerase

Front 623

Transcription occurs at the

Back 623

5’ end of RNA or at the 3’ end of DNA

Front 624

RNA is synthesized in a

Back 624

5’ to 3’ direction…nucleotides added at the 3’ end

Front 625

Transcription unit extends from

Back 625

Promoter to terminator

Front 626

To help protect the mRNA from hydrolytic enzymes a

Back 626

5’ cap made of modified guanosine triphosphate is added

Front 627

Ribosomes attach to the

Back 627

5’ cap

Front 628

The 3’ end of mRNA is modified with a

Back 628

Poly-A tail made of 200 adenine nucleotides

Front 629

The RNA in the nucleus contains introns and exons

Back 629

Known as heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

Front 630

The introns are excised from the hnRNA forming

Back 630

mRNA that enters the cytoplasm

Front 631

60S ribosomal subunit contains

Back 631

5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA

Front 632

40S ribosomal subunit contains

Back 632

18 S rRNA

Front 633

5’ end of tRNA is

Back 633

Phosphorylated

Front 634

3’ end of tRNA has a (sequence CCA)

Back 634

Hydroxyl group and an amino acid attached

Front 635

DNA replication is

Back 635

Semi conservative and bi-directional

Front 636

DNA polymerases

Back 636

Catalyze polymerization (elongation in the 5’ to 3’ direction)

Front 637

DNA ligase acts to join the

Back 637

two DNA polynucleotides through a phosphodiester bond

Front 638

Primase synthesizes the

Back 638

RNA primers needed for replication of the lagging strand

Front 639

Replication fork is unzipped by the

Back 639

ATP driven helicases

Front 640

Single standed binding proteins (SSBs)

Back 640

Keep the DNA unwound and single stranded

Front 641

The leading stand is continuously synthesized by

Back 641

DNA polymerase III holoenzyme

Front 642

The gaps between Okazaki fragments are filled by

Back 642

DNA ploymerase I (also removes the RNA primer)

Front 643

Complementary base pairs are held together by

Back 643

Hydrogen bonds

Front 644

Nucleotides are held together by

Back 644

Covalent bonds

Front 645

Transcription (DNA > RNA) takes place in the

Back 645

Nucleus

Front 646

Translation (RNA > protein) takes place in the

Back 646

Cytoplasm

Front 647

Ribosomal subunits are made in the

Back 647

Nucleolus

Front 648

P site of a ribosome holds the

Back 648

Growing ploypeptide chain

Front 649

A site of a ribosome holds the

Back 649

tRNA holding the next amino acid

Front 650

Synthesis of the polypeptide chains begins with the

Back 650

Amino end and ends with the carboxyl end

Front 651

The first tRNA with methionine (mRNA AUG)

Back 651

Attaches to the P site

Front 652

The binding of a tRNA to the A site requires

Back 652

GTP energy

Front 653

Group I hormones…

Back 653

Intracellular receptors…affect gene expression (steroids)

Front 654

Group I hormones are…

Back 654

Lipophilic, have a long half life

Front 655

Group II hormones…

Back 655

Have membrane receptors and use intracellular messengers

Front 656

Group II hormones are…

Back 656

Hydrophilic and have a short half life, use 2nd messengers

Front 657

All receptors are made of …

Back 657

Proteins

Front 658

Cyclic AMP – second messenger

Back 658

Formed by cyclization of ATP by adenylate cyclase

Front 659

Cyclic GMP – second messenger

Back 659

Used by atriopeptins found in cardiac tissues (ANF)

Front 661

Protein components of muscle

Back 661

Actin (thin) and myosin (thick)

Front 662

Striated pattern fromed by the muscle filaments

Back 662

Are called sarcomeres

Front 663

Z line

Back 663

Where ends of actin meet – separates sarcomeres

Front 664

A band

Back 664

Dark bands – myosin overlapping actin

Front 665

H zone

Back 665

Myosin only

Front 666

I band

Back 666

Light bands – actin only

Front 667

Regulatory proteins bound to actin

Back 667

Troponin and tropomyocin

Front 668

In relaxed state…troponin holds tropomyosin

Back 668

In position to block myocin binding to actin

Front 669

When Ca++ levels increase…Ca++ binds to troponin

Back 669

Changes the complex to allow myocin to bind to actin

Front 670

Smooth muscle contains

Back 670

Calmodulin

Front 671

Ca++ activates calmodulin which then

Back 671

Phosphorylates myocin – allows myosin to bind actin

Front 672

Ca uptake stimulates the release of

Back 672

Ach into the neuromuscular juction

Front 673

Ach causes the membranes to leak Na+ causing

Back 673

Depolarization and opening of more Na+ and K+ channels

Front 674

The opening of the Na+ and K+ channels causes an

Back 674

Action potential to arise

Front 675

The action potential (AP)

Back 675

Propagates in both directions along the sarcolemma

Front 676

The AP opens Ca++ channels on the

Back 676

sarcoplasmic reticulum - increases Ca++ in the sacroplasm

Front 677

Ca++ diffuses into the sarcomeres and binds to

Back 677

Troponin molecules

Front 678

Myosin has

Back 678

ATP-ase activity

Front 679

When myosin attaches to actin it releases

Back 679

ADP + Pi

Front 680

After the contraction

Back 680

ATP binds to myosin to dissociate the filaments

Front 681

Rigor mortis occurs when

Back 681

ATP isn’t available and myosin stays bound to actin (~24 hr)

Front 682

The sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle is

Back 682

SER that removes Ca++ from the cytosol during relaxation

Front 684

NK cells have receptors for

Back 684

The Fc portion of antibodies that have bound to antigen

Front 685

LDLs are used to make

Back 685

triglycerides

Front 687

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Back 687

ACh and catecholamines

Front 688

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Back 688

Glycine and GABA

Front 690

Chromophore of rods and cones

Back 690

11-cis-retinal (light catching molecule)

Front 691

Light causes the 11-cis-retinal to changes to

Back 691

All-trans-retinal through photoisomerization

Front 692

The all trans form dissociates from the

Back 692

Opsin and is released into the cytosol

Front 693

The all-trans-retinal is converted back to 11-cis-retinal

Back 693

By retinal isomerases in the cytosol

Front 694

The all-trans-retinal activates the

Back 694

G protein, transducin which activates a G protein cascade

Front 695

The G protein cascade results in a

Back 695

Decrease in cGMP concentration in the cytosol

Front 696

cGMP is then released from its binding site on

Back 696

Sodium channels – causes Na+ channels to close

Front 697

The closing of the Na+ channels causes a

Back 697

Hyperpolarization of the membrane

Front 698

Hyperpolarization leads to the

Back 698

Transmission of the nerve pulse

Front 699

In the dark the outer segment of the photoreceptor is

Back 699

Highly permeable to Na+

Front 701

Proteins are made of

Back 701

23 types of amino acids

Front 702

Proteins account for

Back 702

50% of the organic material in the body (17% total BW)

Front 703

Proteins provide

Back 703

4.32 calories per gram

Front 704

Proteins should be about

Back 704

12-15% of the daily caloric intake

Front 705

Carbohydrates should be about

Back 705

50% of the daily caloric intake (600 calories of simple CHO)

Front 706

To prevent significant protein breakdown

Back 706

100 grams of CHO are needed everyday

Front 707

Carbohydrates provide

Back 707

4.19 calories per gram

Front 708

The essential fatty acids are

Back 708

Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid (provided by plants)

Front 709

Fats provide

Back 709

9.46 calories per gram

Front 710

8 original essential amino acids

Back 710

Lys, thr, met, val, isoleucine, tryptophan, leu, phenylalanine

Front 712

Thiamine deficiency leads to

Back 712

Beriberi – neurological disorder that leads to heart failure

Front 713

Ascorbic acid deficiency leads to

Back 713

Scurvy – rotting teeth and gums, spontaneous hemorrhage

Front 714

Riboflavin deficiency leads to

Back 714

Anemia, cracking of corners of mouth

Front 715

Folic acid deficiency leads to

Back 715

Anemia, weight loss and weakness

Front 716

Symptoms of vitamin A toxicity include

Back 716

Nystagmus, diplopia, ocular muscle palsies

Front 718

Kreb’s cycle takes place in the

Back 718

Inner compartment of the mitochondria – the matrix

Front 719

Resting membrane potential is

Back 719

– 65-85 mV…more Na+ outside the cell

Front 720

Tidal volume TV

Back 720

Volume of air that moves in and out during normal breathing

Front 721

Inspiratory reserve IRV

Back 721

Extra volume inspired above the tidal volume

Front 722

Expiratory reserve ERV

Back 722

Extra volume expired by use of active contraction

Front 723

Vital capacity

Back 723

Sume of TV, IRV, and ERV

Front 724

Residual volume

Back 724

The amount of air that remains after maximum expiration

Front 725

Anatomical dead space

Back 725

Where no air exchange takes place

Front 726

The primary unit of the lungs is the

Back 726

Alveoli – where actual gas exchange takes place

Front 727

O2 moves across alveoli walls by

Back 727

Diffusion, into capillary walls to the blood

Front 728

O2 concentration is greatest in the

Back 728

Alveoli

Front 729

CO2 concentration is greatest in the

Back 729

Blood

Front 730

CO2 stimulates the breathing center in the

Back 730

Medulla – hypoxia accelerates breathing

Front 731

CO2 reacts with H2O to form

Back 731

Bicarbonate ions

Front 732

The control center for breathing is the

Back 732

Medulla oblongata

Front 733

Hering-brever reflexes occur when the lungs expand so

Back 733

much that baroreceptors send inhibitory signals to the brain

Front 734

Maintaining rhythmicity of respiration is up to the

Back 734

Pneumotaxic center in the upper pons

Front 735

The cerebral cortex controls the

Back 735

Voluntary aspects of breathing

Front 737

The pyloric sphincter is between the

Back 737

Stomach and small intestine

Front 738

The Duodenum of the small intestine

Back 738

Receives chyme from the pyloric end of the stomach

Front 739

Most digestion occurs in the

Back 739

Duodenum

Front 740

Absorption of digested food occurs in the

Back 740

Jejunum and the ileum of the small intestine

Front 741

Segmentation contraction of small intestine

Back 741

Mixing movement – rhythmic contration

Front 742

Peristalsis

Back 742

Propulsive movement

Front 743

Chief (peptic) (zygomatic) cells of the stomach secrete

Back 743

Pepsinogen (precursor to pepsin)

Front 744

Parietal (oxyntic) cells secrete

Back 744

HCl – which activates pepsinogen to pepsin

Front 745

Parietal cells also secrete

Back 745

Intrinsic factor which is necessary for B12 absorption

Front 746

Mucous cells secrete

Back 746

A protective, alkaline mucus – protects walls from HCl

Front 747

G cells are epithelial endocrine cells (anteroendocrine cells ) that secrete

Back 747

Gastrin (a hormone) inhibits HCl secretion from parietal cells

Front 748

Other epithelial endocrine cells secrete somatostatin

Back 748

Which inhibits secretion from parietal, chief and G cells

Front 749

Pancreatic enzymes require a

Back 749

Neutral pH environment to function

Front 750

The hormone CCK from the intestinal mucosa

Back 750

Causes the gall bladder to contract

Front 752

Isometric contraction – muscle length stays the same

Back 752

Energy released at heat – produces tension in the muscle

Front 753

Isotonic contraction – tension stays the same

Back 753

Muscle shortens to move a load – work is done

Front 754

Golgi tendon organ

Back 754

Sense the degree of stretch

Front 756

Protein concentrations in the body

Back 756

Cells 4X > plasma > interstitial fluid

Front 758

Na+ is actively transported out of the

Back 758

Proximal convoluted tubule (Cl- passively follows)

Front 759

Water follows tha Na+ and the Cl- resulting in

Back 759

65% of the water being reabsorbed in the PCT

Front 760

In the descending loop of Henle

Back 760

H2O and salt passively leave the tubule

Front 761

In the ascending loop of Henle

Back 761

Cl- and Na+ are actively pumped out of the tubule

Front 762

The ascending loop of Henle is

Back 762

Impermeable to water (tubule fluid is more dilute)

Front 763

The distal convoluted tubule is also

Back 763

Impermeable to water

Front 764

The collecting tubule is

Back 764

Permeable to water but NOT to salt

Front 765

Permeability of the collecting duct is controlled by

Back 765

ADH – released in response to increased solute conc.

Front 766

ADH comes from the

Back 766

Posterior pituitary – causes reabsorption of water

Front 767

Aldosterone …

Back 767

Promotes Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion b

Front 768

The actions of aldosterone

Back 768

Increase blood volume and pressure

Front 769

Bicarbonate is converted to

Back 769

Carbonic acid to allow it to pass the renal tubule wall

Front 771

Cardiac cycle is initiated by

Back 771

Impulse from the SA (sinoatrial) node

Front 772

Systolic period begins with the

Back 772

First heart sound and ends with the second

Front 773

Diastole begins with the

Back 773

Second heart sound and ends with the first

Front 774

The cardiac actions potential lasts

Back 774

~ 300 msec (long)

Front 775

The rate that the heart beats is determined by the

Back 775

Rate of diastolic depolarization

Front 776

Action potential goes from the atrium to the ventricle

Back 776

Via the AV (atrioventricular) node

Front 777

The actions potential continues through the

Back 777

Bindle of His and the purkinje fibers

Front 778

P wave

Back 778

Depolarization of the atrial muscle

Front 779

QRS complex

Back 779

Depolarization of the ventricles (repolarization of atria)

Front 780

CO (cardiac output) =

Back 780

SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate)

Front 781

Blood flow =

Back 781

Arterial pressure / resistance

Front 782

The greatest pressure drop occurs at the level of the

Back 782

Arterioles (large resistance to flow at this point)

Front 783

Pulsatile pressure in arteries =

Back 783

Systolic pressure – diastolic pressure

Front 784

Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = (related to blood flow)

Back 784

1/3(pulse pressure) + diastolic pressure

Front 785

Peripheral resistance is determined by

Back 785

Blood viscosity and arterial diameter

Front 786

Resting vascular tone is maintained by continuous

Back 786

Sympathetic activity from vasomotor centers (in medulla)

Front 787

Epinephrine binds to

Back 787

Beta receptors on heart, skeletal muscle, liver

Front 788

Angiotensin is a

Back 788

Potent vasoconstrictor

Front 789

Atrial natriuretic factor (peptide) is a

Back 789

Potent vasodilator, also cause excretion of NaCl and H2O

Front 790

Baroreceptors in the wall of the aorta are

Back 790

Stretch receptors that respond to arterial pressure changes

Front 791

Increased baroreceptor activity results in a decreased

Back 791

Sympathetic activity, Decreases HR, contractility and CO

Front 793

Average blood volume is

Back 793

5 liters

Front 794

Specific gravity of whole blood is

Back 794

1.055 (3-4x as viscous as water)

Front 795

Normal sed rate is

Back 795

2-10 mm/hr

Front 796

Normal adult hematocrit is

Back 796

~40%

Front 798

Hormones are secreted by

Back 798

Ductless glands, directly into the vascular system

Front 799

Anterior pituitary horm. (chemical hypothalamic control)

Back 799

ACTH, TSH, GH, LH, FSH, prolactin

Front 800

Posterior pituitary horm. (hormonal/neuronal control)

Back 800

ADH (vasopressin), oxytocin

Front 801

Pituitary gland produces

Back 801

tropic hormones

Front 802

ACTH – (adrenocorticotropic hormone) promotes

Back 802

growth of adrenal cortex, of corticosteroid secretion

Front 803

FSH – (follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates

Back 803

Graffian follicle growth and maturity, follicles to release estrogen and in males stimulates development of seminiferous tubules and maintains spermatogenesis

Front 804

LH – Luteinizing hormone) works with FSH to

Back 804

Stimulate complete maturation of the follicle, brings about ovulation and stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and estrogen, in males cause the secretion of testosterone from the testes

Front 805

Adrenal cortex responds to ACTH from the anterior pituitary and produces…

Back 805

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) , glucocorticoids (hydrocortisone) , androgens (estrogen)

Front 806

Adrenal medulla responds to the sympathetic nervous system and produces…

Back 806

Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

Front 807

TRH (from hypothalamus) stimulates release of

Back 807

TSH from anterior pituitary

Front 808

T3, T4 are released by thyroid follicles in response to

Back 808

TSH, increase metabolic rate everywhere except the brain

Front 809

T3 and T4 act by negative feedback on the

Back 809

Anterior pituitary to decrease TSH release

Front 811

Alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans secrete

Back 811

Glucagon – increases glycogenolysis to increase BS

Front 812

Beta cells of the Islets of Langehans secrete

Back 812

Insulin – promotes glucose uptake into cells, fat anabolism

Front 813

Increase in glucose causes an

Back 813

Increase in insulin and a decrease in glucagons

Front 814

Increase in amino acids causes an

Back 814

Increase of both insulin and glucagon

Front 815

Glucagons secretion is stimulated by

Back 815

Sympathetic NS

Front 816

Insulin secretion is stimulated by

Back 816

Parasympathetic NS

Front 818

Parathyroid hormone increases

Back 818

Ca++ levels, increased bone absorption, intestinal absorption and renal absorption – decreases plasma phosphate

Front 819

Vitamin D is activated in the

Back 819

Kindey – same effects as PTH but also cause reabsorption of renal phosphate

Front 820

Calcitonin comes from the thyroid gland and

Back 820

Lowers blood Ca++ - decreases bone absorption

Front 821

GH comes from the anterior pituitary and stimulates the

Back 821

Growth of longitudinal bones , increase blood glucose

Front 822

Somatostatin from hypothalamus

Back 822

Inhibits GH release

Front 824

In pregnancy high estrogen and progesterone inhibit

Back 824

Gonadotropin releaseing hormone form the hypothalamus – results in no LH or FSH

Front 825

Oxytocin stimulates the

Back 825

Release of milk from breasts (contraction of myoepithelial)

Front 826

Prolactin stimulates the

Back 826

Synthesis of milk and the secretion of milk into the alveoli

Front 828

Granulomatous inflammation is seen in

Back 828

Syphilis, TB and leprosy – conditions with poorly digested irritants and T cell mediated immunity

Front 829

Granulomas are collections of

Back 829

modified macrophages with a rim of lymphocytes

Front 830

Characteristic cell of granulomatous inflammation is

Back 830

Epithelioid cell (modified macrophage) – also present are Langerhans and foreign body giant cells

Front 831

Giant cells provide

Back 831

Cell mediated immunity

Front 833

Laminin and fibronectin are important in

Back 833

Holding the cells to the basement membrane

Front 834

DNA and RNA polymerases are dependent on

Back 834

Zinc

Front 836

Type 1 hyperaensitivity – IgE mediated

Back 836

Anaphylaxis, bronchospasm, urticaria, angioedema

Front 837

Type 2 antibody dependent cytotoxic

Back 837

Hemolytic anemia eg, Rh incompatibility

Front 838

Type 3 immune complex mediated (Arthus rxn)

Back 838

Serum sickness

Front 839

Type 4 delayed type hypersensitivity

Back 839

Contact dermatitis

Front 840

Tissue transplant rejection is a

Back 840

Type 2 hypersensitivity reaction

Front 842

Most common immunodeficiency is

Back 842

Ab deficiency – decreases IgA production by B cells

Front 843

Di Georges Syndrome is a

Back 843

Congenital T cell deficiency

Front 844

Alternative complement pathway is activated by

Back 844

Bacterial endotoxins (binds C3)

Front 845

Classical complement pathway is activated by

Back 845

Ag/ab complexes (binds C1)

Front 846

Interferon gamma (INFg) is a lymphokine that

Back 846

increases the effectiveness of macrophages and NK cells

Front 847

Complement also has a chemotactic function to

Back 847

Attract phagocytes to the area of infection

Front 849

XXY

Back 849

Kleinfelter’s – male with female characteristics

Front 850

XO

Back 850

Turner’s – female with no 2o female characteristics

Front 851

XXX

Back 851

Triple female – mental retardation

Front 852

XYY

Back 852

Double male

Front 854

A carcinogenic toxin found in peanut butter is

Back 854

Aflatoxin (a mycotoxin)

Front 855

Benign tumors tend to expand

Back 855

Malignant tumors tend to be invasive

Front 856

Erysipelas is an acute inflammation of the skin

Back 856

Caused by S. pyogenes – occurs on cheeks

Front 857

Decubitus ulcers (bed sores or pressure sores)

Back 857

Caused by prolonged pressure over bony protuberances

Front 858

Tinea cruris

Back 858

Jock itch

Front 860

In lead poisoning you see

Back 860

Marked basophilic stippling in RBC

Front 861

Anemia of Myxedema (low thyroid function px)

Back 861

Macrocytic, normochromic

Front 862

Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria

Back 862

Chronic hemolytic anemia, hemoglobin-emia and –uria

Front 863

Cells in Chronic Myelocytic Leukemia carry the

Back 863

Philadelphia chromosome

Front 864

Chronic infx by B cell antigens induce

Back 864

Lymph node follicular hyperplasia

Front 865

Chronic infx by T cell antigens induce

Back 865

Lymph node paracortical lymphoid hyperplasia

Front 866

Hodgkin’s Diseases is characterized by

Back 866

Reed-sternberg giant cells

Front 867

Non Hodgkin’s Lymphoma is

Back 867

Mostly of B-cell origin

Front 869

Emphysema is characterized by an Increase in…

Back 869

the size of air spaces distal to the terminal bronchiole

Front 870

Tuberculosis infection can be seen as

Back 870

Ghon’s tubercles in a lung X-ray

Front 871

Mesothelioma is a primary lung tumor arising from

Back 871

The surface lining of the pleura – association with asbestos

Front 872

Goodpasture’s syndrome is associated with

Back 872

Necrotizing hemorrhagic interstitial pneumonitis and proliferative glomerulonephritis

Front 873

Sarcoidosis is characterized by

Back 873

Noncaseating granulomas located primarily in the lung

Front 874

Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (gastrinoma)

Back 874

Gastrin secreting tumor in the pancreas – sever PUD

Front 875

Gastric ulcer

Back 875

Due to decreased tissue resistance to acid

Front 876

Stromal ulcer

Back 876

Vomiting blood, anemia and occult blood in stool

Front 877

Regional enteritis usually involves the

Back 877

Ilium – right quadrant pain

Front 878

Ulcerative colitis is characterized by

Back 878

Blood stool with no pathogenic organisms

Front 879

Granulomatous colitis (Chron’s Disease)

Back 879

Transmural colitis

Front 880

In Cirrhosis there is progressive injury of the liver and

Back 880

The hepatic portal vein is diverted around the liver

Front 881

Biliary disease in HIV patients is commonly caused by

Back 881

Cryptosporidium (Cryptosporidial cholangitis)

Front 882

Pancreastic insufficiency leads to

Back 882

Steatorrhea due to the lack of lipase

Front 883

A treatment of CHF is

Back 883

Digitalis which raises CO

Front 884

Sulfonylureas are drugs that

Back 884

Stimulate insulin secretion from Beta cells

Front 885

Clinical manifestations of hypocalcemia are

Back 885

Primarily neurologic – may also cause cataracts

Front 886

Hyperpitutarism leads to an

Back 886

Overproduction of growth hormone

Front 887

In hypopitutarism the

Back 887

Gonadotropins are lost first, then GH, then TSH and ACTH

Front 888

Cushing’s disease (hypercorticism)

Back 888

Increased glucocorticoids – abnormal steroid hormone production by the adrenal gland – over production of ACTH by pituitary – fat redistribution

Front 889

Addison’s disease (hypocorticism)

Back 889

Deficiency in steroid production by the adrenal cortex – excess pigmentation of skin – Low Na and High K – low BP

Front 890

Pheochromocytoma

Back 890

Tumor of chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla that secrete catecholamines – causes hypertension – px feel a sense of impending doom

Front 892

A classic migraine involves

Back 892

Visual aura – common migraine has no aura

Front 893

Cluster headaches can be associated with

Back 893

Alcohol – signs are tearing, photophobia, nasal congestion

Front 894

Muscular atrophy (wasting away) is due to a

Back 894

Denervation of the muscle

Front 895

Muscular dystrophies are a group if inherited disorders

Back 895

Muscle weakness without pain or cramping

Front 896

Tay Sachs disease is a gangliosidosis disease

Back 896

AR – ganglion cell destruction, glial proliferation and myelin degeneration – cherry red spot on macula

Front 897

The most common cause of chronic renal failure is

Back 897

Diabetes mellitus (then HTN and glomerulonephritis)

Front 898

Preeclampsia-Eclampsia of pregnancy is results in

Back 898

Hemorrhage, seizures, renal failure, DIC and death

Front 900

Marasmus is a

Back 900

Continued restriction of dietary energy and protein

Front 901

Kwashiorkor is a quantitative and qualitative deficiency

Back 901

Of protein – energy intake may be adequate

Front 902

Rickets is caused by a deficiency of

Back 902

Vit D and a failure of the small intestine to absorb Ca++

Front 903

Osteomalacia

Back 903

Adult counterpart to rickets

Front 904

Scurvy occurs when a lack of

Back 904

Ascorbic acid results in a CT disturbance – bleeding gums

Front 905

Beriberi is the result if a deficiency of

Back 905

Thiamin

Front 906

Pellagra is the disease of the 3 Ds

Back 906

Dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia – may result from malabsorption syndrome, alcoholism or low protein diets

Front 907

Thiamin deficiency can cause

Back 907

Wernike-Korsakoff syndrome, Beriberi and heart disease

Front 908

In alcoholism Vitamin C def. occurs when consumption

Back 908

Exceeds 30% of the total caloric intake

Front 909

Vitamin E and selenium are

Back 909

Antioxidants – def. causes RBC death and neuro problems

Front 910

Vitamin C deficiency causes a

Back 910

Failure in wound healing due to the CT disturbances

Front 911

Thiamin is involved in a stage of

Back 911

Carbohydrate breakdown

Front 912

The Pellagra preventing vitamin is

Back 912

Niacin (nicotinic acid)

Front 913

Anticonvulsant medications reduced serum levels of

Back 913

Folate

Front 914

Pantothenic acid is a

Back 914

Constituent of coenzyme A

Front 915

Vitamin K is necessary for the formation of

Back 915

Prothrombin in the liver and clotting factors VII, IX, X

Front 916

Cobalt is a

Back 916

Constituent of vitamin B12

Front 918

Spastic cerebral palsy

Back 918

70% of CP cases – upper motor neuron spacticity – scissors gait and toe walking

Front 919

Athetoid/dyskinetic cerebral palsy

Back 919

20% of CP cases – movements related to emotional tension – slow, writhing and involuntary movements

Front 920

Ataxic cerebral palsy

Back 920

10% of CP cases – damage in the cerebellum – weakness, incoordination, wide based gait, problems with fine mvmts

Front 921

The most common CP cases are

Back 921

Mixed – spastic with athetosis

Front 923

Withdrawal symptoms for cocaine and opiates are

Back 923

Irritability. Hypertonicity, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, convulsions and hyperventilation

Front 924

Withdrawal symptoms of barbiturates

Back 924

Convulsions, irritability and fussiness

Front 926

Visual acuity is a

Back 926

Measure of sensitivity of spatial discrimination

Front 927

Acuity increases by about

Back 927

1 cycle per degree per month until 20 months of age

Front 928

The critical period for normal visual development is

Back 928

Before 6-8 months of age

Front 929

The limitation to early acuity is the

Back 929

Nervous system’s ability to process the image

Front 930

VA obtained with VEP is similar to adults by

Back 930

6-8 months of age

Front 931

Loss of sensitivity at low spatial frequencies indicates

Back 931

The working of lateral inhibition (noticed at 2 mo)

Front 932

The high frequency cut off changes from

Back 932

2cpd at 2mo to 20cpd at 10mo

Front 933

The lowest sensitivity to low spatial frequency is seen

Back 933

Between ages 8-15

Front 934

Avg refractive error in premature infants is

Back 934

+0.50D SD 2.80D

Front 935

Ave refractive error in full-term infants is

Back 935

+2.00D SD 2.00D

Front 936

1yr old RE =

Back 936

+1.00 SD 1.1D

Front 937

3yr old RE =

Back 937

+0.95 SD 1.00

Front 938

By 5 mo of age infants develop an

Back 938

Adult sensitivity curve to different wavelengths of light

Front 939

Brunescence of the lens causes the absorbance of

Back 939

Short (blue) wavelengths of light

Front 940

Accommodation if well developed by

Back 940

4 mo of age

Front 941

Lid closure in response to bright light is seen at

Back 941

30 weeks gestation

Front 942

The blink response to visual threat is seen at

Back 942

2-5 mo of age

Front 943

Infants have 1 min of stereopsis (60sec) by

Back 943

21 weeks (~5 mo)

Front 944

Saccades are present at birth and fully developed by

Back 944

4-5 mo of age (step saccades present before 4 mo)

Front 945

Infants use smooth pursuits for low velocities by

Back 945

2 mo of age

Front 946

OKN is seen at birth

Front 947

At 5-6 wks of age tracking is completed by

Back 947

Saccadic movements, not pursuits

Front 948

OKN is

Back 948

- smooth pursuit with a saccadic refixation in the opposite direction

Front 949

Monocular OKN is observed at

Back 949

3 months of age

Front 950

An asymmetric OKN is seen with

Back 950

Temporal to nasal mvnts of a stimulus (seen under 3 mo)

Front 951

The vestibular sense isn’t fully developed until

Back 951

4-5 years of age (child uses vision to stand upright)

Front 952

Conjugate horizontal gaze is well developed at

Back 952

Birth

Front 953

Conjugate vertical gaze is well developed at

Back 953

2 mo of age

Front 954

Papillary light reaction is present at

Back 954

31 wks (~6mo)

Front 955

The critical period for the development of ocular dominance columns is

Back 955

Between 6-8mo and 2.5 yrs in humans; 6wks in monkeys; 1-3 mo in kittens

Front 956

Deprivation experiments show

Back 956

No effect on the retina; Shrinkage of cells in all layers of the LGN; visual cortex is severely affected; alteration of ocular dominance columns occurs

Front 957

Pattern deprivation causes more disturbance of

Back 957

Binocularity than light deprivation

Front 958

The number of binocular cells decreases from

Back 958

80% to 20% in a stabismic animal

Front 959

Contrast sensitivity decreased with age

Back 959

Important for contact lens wearers

Front 960

Macular degeneration and nuclear sclerosis cause

Back 960

A loss in discrimination of the blue end of the spectrum

Front 961

Convergence ability stays the same or better with age

Back 961

Because accommodative convergence can be used

Front 962

The time to rod cone break

Back 962

Remains constant as one ages

Front 963

Senile miosis accounts for a

Back 963

7 cycle per second decrease in CFF by age 40yrs

Front 964

The most widespread of the psychoses is

Back 964

Schizophrenia

Front 966

The muscles of the iris are derived from

Back 966

Neural ectoderm

Front 967

The pars plana functions to

Back 967

Restore MPS important to the vitreous

Front 968

The pars plicata functions to

Back 968

Make aqueous via active transport

Front 969

Layers of the iris

Front 970

Anterior border layer

Back 970

Part you see

Front 971

Stroma

Back 971

Contains sphincter muscle

Front 972

Anterior epithelium and dilator muscle

Back 972

One cell layer

Front 973

Posterior pigmented epithelium

Back 973

One cell layer

Front 974

The dilator muscle consists of

Back 974

Radial extensions of the unpigmented anterior epithelium

Front 975

Longitudinal fibers of the ciliary muscle

Back 975

Arise from anterior choroids and run to the scleral spur

Front 976

Circular fibers of the ciliary muscle form a

Back 976

Sphincter around the edge of the CB behind the iris root

Front 977

Radial fibers of the ciliary muscle form a

Back 977

Meshwork between the longitudinal and circular fibers

Front 979

1st synapse of the light reflex pathway occurs in the

Back 979

Pretectal nucleus

Front 980

2nd synapse of the light reflex pathway occurs in the

Back 980

EW nucleus

Front 981

3rd synapse of the light reflex pathway occurs in the

Back 981

Ciliary ganglion

Front 982

From the ciliary ganglion the signals travel down

Back 982

Short ciliary nerves to the iris sphincter of both eyes

Front 984

For eyes to dilate, the lack of light sends a signal to

Back 984

Lateral geniculate body (synapse)

Front 985

From the LGB the signal travels to the

Back 985

Cortex (synapse) and hypothalamus and reticular formation

Front 986

The final synapse for pupil dilation is in the

Back 986

Superior cervical ganglion

Front 987

From the superior cervical gangion the signal goes

Back 987

Through the long ciliary nerves to the iris dilator

Front 989

During sleep the pupil

Back 989

Constricts

Front 990

Stages of anesthesia

Front 991

Stage 1

Back 991

Excitatory phase – pupil dilation

Front 992

Stage 2

Back 992

Light anesthesia – pupil dilation

Front 993

Stage 3

Back 993

Deep anesthesia – pupil constriction

Front 994

Stage 4

Back 994

Near death – pupil dilation

Front 995

Corneal pain causes the pupil to

Back 995

Constrict – oculopupillary/trigeminal reflex

Front 996

Prolonged pain causes activation of the

Back 996

Sympathetic nervous system – pupil dilation

Front 997

Systemic pain causes the pupil to

Back 997

Dilate

Front 999

The purpose of a pursuit is to

Back 999

Maintain object of regard on the fovea

Front 1000

A saccade functions to

Back 1000

Place the object of regard on the fovea rapidly

Front 1001

The vergence system functions to

Back 1001

Align the visual axes to maintain bifoveal fixation

Front 1003

Fast muscle fibers have

Back 1003

Single motor endplates – impulse results in twitch

Front 1004

Slow muscle fibers have

Back 1004

Multiple nerve endings (en grappe) – graded contractions in the absence of muscle action potentials

Front 1005

The longest EOMs are the

Back 1005

Horizontal recti

Front 1006

The thickest EOM is the

Back 1006

Medial rectus

Front 1007

The thinnest EOM is the

Back 1007

Lateral rectus

Front 1008

Hering’s law states that

Back 1008

Two yokes muscles are equally innervated

Front 1009

Vertical movements are around the

Back 1009

X axis

Front 1010

Horizontal movements are around the

Back 1010

Z axis

Front 1011

Torsional movements are around the

Back 1011

Y axis

Front 1012

Sherrington’s law of reciprocal innervation:

Back 1012

When agonists stimulated, antagonists are inhibited

Front 1013

Vestibular ocular reflex (VOR) functions to

Back 1013

Allow eyes to fixate on an object despite head movement

Front 1014

The stimulus to VOR is

Back 1014

Movement of semicircular canals – 3 neuron arc

Front 1015

VOR is faster than the pursuit system

Back 1015

Can track up to 4 HZ –

Front 1016

VOR latency =

Back 1016

15msec

Front 1017

Microsaccades are

Back 1017

Moderately rapid eye movements (2-10deg/sec) 1’-25’ of arc and durations up to 25msec

Front 1018

Microtremors occur at

Back 1018

High frequency (70HZ) – small amplitude

Front 1019

Microdrifts are composed of

Back 1019

Smooth pursuit, vergence and VOR eye movements (slow)

Front 1020

A version is a movement when

Back 1020

The lines of site maintain the same visual angle

Front 1021

Rightward looking is called

Back 1021

Dextroversion

Front 1022

Leftward looking is called

Back 1022

Levoversion

Front 1023

Rotation rightward is called

Back 1023

Dextrocycloversion

Front 1024

Rotation leftward is called

Back 1024

levocycloversion

Front 1025

Smooth pursuits are a

Back 1025

Sloe, steady, involuntary movement that is mediated by a graded response – constant velocity - ~40 deg arc/sec

Front 1026

Latency of smooth pursuits =

Back 1026

125msec

Front 1027

Saccades are

Back 1027

Very rapid eye movements – may reach 1000deg arc/sec – initiated by a burst of nerve impulses

Front 1028

Latency of saccades =

Back 1028

120-160msec

Front 1029

Dynamic overshoots are

Back 1029

A consequence of multiple pulse saccadic movements

Front 1030

Vergence movements have a maximum velocity of

Back 1030

~21 deg arc/sec (slow)

Front 1031

The latency for vergence eye movements is

Back 1031

160msec (twice as fast as that for accommodation)

Front 1032

A dynamic overshoot are present in

Back 1032

Convergence and accommodation – not divergence

Front 1033

Caloric testing for internuclear ophthalmoplegia

Back 1033

COWS cold opposite warm same (pontine gaze mechanism)

Front 1034

Spasmus nutans

Back 1034

- Presents during the first year of life

Back 1035

- lasts several months – spontaneously resolves

Back 1036

- nystagmus is fine, pendular and rapid

Back 1037

- associated with strabismus

Front 1038

Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN)

Back 1038

Induced nystagmus – not dependent on good VA – manifestation of fixation

Front 1039

The most common clinical use of OKN is in the

Back 1039

Diagnosis of parietal lobe disease (disturbance of OKN response in disease affecting the optic radiations)

Front 1040

Blinking proceeds in a

Back 1040

Lateral to medial direction, wiping the cornea clean

Front 1041

The structures that pass the optic foramen are the

Back 1041

Optic nerve and CRA (ophthalmic A)

Front 1042

Superior orbital fissure

Front 1043

Inside tendinus annulus

Back 1043

Old Owls Are Not Intelligent

Front 1044

Aka Oculomotor foramen

Back 1044

OM nerve (IIIs), sup division

Back 1045

OM nerve (IIIi), inf division

Back 1046

Abducens N (VI)

Back 1047

Nasociliary N (V1)

Back 1048

Inferior ophthalmic vein

Back 1049

Rob Left Florida To Sing

Front 1050

Outside tendinus annulus

Back 1050

Recurrent lacrimal A

Front 1051

(above annulus)

Back 1051

Lacrimal N (V1)

Back 1052

Frontal N (V1)

Back 1053

Trochlear N(IV)

Back 1054

Superior ophthalmic vein

Front 1055

Foramen rotundum

Back 1055

Maxillary N

Front 1056

Foramen ovale

Back 1056

Mandibular N (V3)

Back 1057

Accessory meningeal A

Back 1058

Lesser petrosal N

Front 1059

Foramen spinosum

Back 1059

Middle meningeal A & N

Back 1060

Meningeal branch of V3

Front 1061

Formane lacerum

Back 1061

Internal carotid A

Back 1062

Internal carotid N plexus

Front 1063

Internal acoustic meatus

Back 1063

Facial N (VII)

Back 1064

Vestibulocochlear N (VIII)

Front 1065

Jugular foramen

Back 1065

Inf. Petrosal sinus

Back 1066

Glossopharyngeal N (IX)

Back 1067

Vagus N (X)

Back 1068

Accessory N (XI)

Back 1069

Sigmoid sinus

Back 1070

Post meningeal A

Front 1071

Hypoglossal canal

Back 1071

Hypoglossal N (XII)

Front 1072

Foramen magnum

Back 1072

Medulla oblongata

Back 1073

Meninges

Back 1074

Vertebral A

Back 1075

Meningeal branch of vertebrals

Back 1076

Spinal roots of accessory N

Front 1077

The only synovial joint of the skull is the

Back 1077

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

Front 1078

Branches of the external carotids

Back 1078

Facial A

Back 1079

Infraorbital A

Back 1080

Superficial temporal A.

Back 1081

Transverse facial A

Back 1082

Orbital A

Back 1083

Frontal A

Front 1084

Branches of the internal carotids

Back 1084

Ophthalmic A

Back 1085

Posterior communicating A

Back 1086

Anterior cerebral A

Back 1087

Middle cerebral A

Front 1088

The circle of Willis consists of

Back 1088

Internal carotid As

Back 1089

Cerebral As

Back 1090

Communicating As

Front 1091

The R and L brachiocephalic veins drain to the

Back 1091

Superior vena cava

Front 1092

The brachiocephalic veins are formed by the

Back 1092

Union of the internal jugular and subclavian veins

Front 1093

The external jugular vein drains the

Back 1093

Face

Front 1094

The internal jugular vein drains the

Back 1094

Orbit and head

Front 1095

There are 31 spinal nerves

Back 1095

8 cervical

Back 1096

12 thoracic

Back 1097

5 lumbar

Back 1098

5 sacral

Back 1099

1 coccygeal

Front 1100

The dorsal root of each spinal nerve is

Back 1100

Sensory

Front 1101

The ventral root of each spinal nerve is

Back 1101

Motor

Front 1102

The spinal ganglion is a collection of nerve cell bodies

Back 1102

On the dorsal root of the spinal nerve

Front 1103

Dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway

Back 1103

Conscious proprioception, tactile discrimination, vibration sensation, form recognition, joint and muscle sensation

Back 1104

Lower extremities

Front 1105

Fasciculus gracilus

Back 1105

Upper extremities

Front 1106

Fasciculus cuneatus

Back 1106

Caudal medulla (gracile and cuneate nuclei)

Front 1107

1st - Fibers ascend in dorsal columns and terminate in

Back 1107

Medial lemniscus

Front 1108

Fibers decussate and form the

Back 1108

Ventral posteriolateral nucleus of the thalamus (VPL)

Front 1109

2nd - The medial lemniscus ascends to the

Back 1109

Post central gyrus (3,1,2) primary somatosensory cortex

Front 1110

3rd - From the VPL fibers project through the posterior

Front 1111

limb of the internal capsule to the

Back 1111

Contralateral loss

Front 1112

Damage above decussation results in

Back 1112

Ipsilateral loss

Front 1113

Damage in the spinal cord (below the decussation)

Front 1114

Lateral spinothalamic tract

Back 1114

Pain and temperature sensation

Front 1115

1st order neurons found in the

Back 1115

Dorsal root ganglion – project through the dorsolateral tract of Lissauer – synapse in the dorsal horn

Back 1116

Ventral white commosure and ascend in the contralateral lateral funiculus – terminate in the VPL

Front 1117

2nd order neurons decussate in the

Back 1117

Posterior limb of the internal capsule to areas 3,1,2

Back 1118

Contralateral loss of pain and temperature below the lesion

Front 1119

3rd order neurons project through the

Front 1120

Lesion of the tract causes

Front 1121

Lateral corticospinal tract

Back 1121

Voluntary skilled motor activity from upper limbs

Back 1122

Not fully developed until second year of life (Babinski’s sign)

Front 1123

Arise from layer V of the cerebral cortex

Back 1123

Premotor cortex (area 6)

Back 1124

Primary cortex (area 4)

Back 1125

Primary sensory cortex (3,1,2)

Front 1126

Fibers in the medulla travel in the

Back 1126

Medullary pyramids

Front 1127

85-90% of fibers cross at the level of the

Back 1127

pyramidal decussation (continue as lateral corticospinals)

Front 1128

10-15% of fibers do not cross

Back 1128

anterior corticospinals

Front 1129

lesion above the motor decussation results in

Back 1129

contralateral spastic paresis + Babinski

Front 1130

lesion in spinal cord results in

Back 1130

ipsilateral spastic paralysis + Babinski

Front 1132

The valve between the R atrium and R ventricle is the

Back 1132

Tricuspid valve (AV valve) – chordae tendineae attached

Front 1133

The valve between the L atrium and L ventricle is the

Back 1133

Left AV valve aka bicuspid aka mitral

Front 1134

The pace maker of the heart is the

Back 1134

SA node

Front 1135

The Ampulla of Vater is the place where the

Back 1135

Common bile duct and pancreatic duct come together

Front 1136

The Major duodenal papilla of Vater is where

Back 1136

The ducts enter the duodenum

Front 1137

Areas in the adrenal cortex gland

Front 1138

Zonula glomerulosa

Back 1138

Aldosterone

Front 1139

Zonula fasciculate

Back 1139

Cortisol, cortison and corticosterone

Front 1140

Zonula reticularis

Back 1140

Testosterone, estrogen and progesterone

Front 1141

The sphincter of Oddi controls

Back 1141

Entry of bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum

Front 1143

Neural plate is formed by the thickening of the

Back 1143

Ectoderm at the midline (3wks)

Front 1144

The neural tube produces the

Back 1144

CNS – brain and spinal cord

Front 1145

Derivatives of neural crest include

Back 1145

Ganglia, glia, adrenal medulla, melanocytes

Front 1146

The cells of the adrenal medulla are called

Back 1146

Chromaffin cells – release epi and nor epi

Front 1147

The mantle layer of the neural tube becomes the

Back 1147

Gray matter of the spinal cord

Front 1148

The mantle layer is divided into the

Back 1148

Alar plate (sensory) and the basal plate (motor)

Front 1149

The alar plate forms the

Back 1149

Posterior horn of gray (sensory)

Front 1150

The basal plate forms the

Back 1150

Lateral and anterior horns of gray (motor)

Front 1151

The marginal layer of the neural tube becomes the

Back 1151

White matter of the spinal cord

Front 1152

Anterograde degeneration occurs in the segment

Back 1152

of nerve fiber distal to the trama (Wallerian)

Front 1153

Retragrade degeneration occurs in the segment

Back 1153

of the nerve proximal to the trauma and the cell body

Front 1154

Regenerated nerve fibers have about

Back 1154

80% the dia. and conduction velocity of the original fiber

Front 1155

The major contributing ion to the resting potential is

Back 1155

K+, Na+ has little effect

Front 1156

The threshold potential is when the

Back 1156

Na+ influx begins to exceed the K+ efflux

Front 1157

Inhibitory synaptic currents are carried by

Back 1157

K+ or Cl- channels

Front 1158

Excitatory synaptic currents are carried by

Back 1158

Na+, Ca++ or K+

Front 1159

The poster funiculus contains the

Back 1159

Fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus

Front 1160

The lateral funiculus contains the

Back 1160

Anterior and posterior spinocerebellars, spinotectal, lateral spinothalamic, lateral corticospinal and rubrospinal

Front 1161

The anterior funiculus contains the

Back 1161

Anterior spinothalamic, anterior corticospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal and reticulospinal

Front 1162

There are 3 neurons in ascending(sensory) pathways

Back 1162

Spinothalamic, fasciculus gracilus and cuneatus, posterior spinocerebellar and anterior spino cerebellar

Back 1163

Cell body in dorsal root ganglion

Front 1164

1st order

Back 1164

Connects 1st and 3rd

Front 1165

2nd order

Back 1165

Cell body in thalamus and travels to cortex

Front 1166

3rd order

Front 1167

Descending tracts

Front 1168

Pyramidal tracts

Back 1168

Lateral corticospinal, anterior corticospinal

Front 1169

Extrapyramidal tracts

Back 1169

Rubrospinal, reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, tectospinal

Front 1170

Spinal nerves

Back 1170

31 total – formed from the union of dorsal and ventral roots

Front 1171

Cervical

Back 1171

8 pairs

Front 1172

Thoracic

Back 1172

12 pairs

Front 1173

Lumbar

Back 1173

5 pairs

Front 1174

Sacral

Back 1174

5 pairs

Front 1175

Coccygeal

Back 1175

1 pair

Front 1176

Dorsal primary rami (mixed sensory and motor)

Back 1176

Innervate dorsal musculature of trunk

Front 1177

Ventral primary rami (mixed)

Back 1177

Innervate ventral musculature of trunk and entire musculature of the extremities (form pluexi)

Back 1178

C1-4 – neck

Front 1179

Cervical plexus

Back 1179

C5-8 & T1 – upper extremities

Front 1180

Brachial plexus

Back 1180

L1-4 – anterior thigh, L4-5 & S1-3 – post thigh, leg, foot

Front 1181

Lumbosacral plexus

Back 1181

S2-4 – pelvic floor

Front 1182

Pudendal plexus

Front 1183

Meningeal branch of spinal nerves

Back 1183

(sensory and vasomotor) – innervate dura mater of cord

Front 1184

Rami communications connect the

Back 1184

Ventral root with the sympathetic trunk

Front 1185

The nuclei of the parasympathetic NS are

Back 1185

Craniosacral

Front 1186

The nuclei of the sympathetic NS are

Back 1186

Thoracicolumbar

Front 1187

The target organs of the parasympathetic NS contain

Back 1187

Muscarinic receptors (ACh)

Front 1188

The target organs of the sympathetic NS contsin

Back 1188

Adrenergic receptors –

Back 1189

Muscarinic receptors (sweat glands, adrenal medulla)

Front 1190

Epi and norepi are synthesized from

Back 1190

Tyrosine

Front 1191

Alpha 1 receptors are located on

Back 1191

Vascular smooth muscle (vasoconstriction) and hepatocytes

Front 1192

Alpha 2 receptors are located on

Back 1192

Platelets and white adipocytes (inhibit norepi release)

Front 1193

Beta 1 receptors are located in the

Back 1193

Heart (increase myocardial activity)

Front 1194

Beta 2 receptors are located in the

Back 1194

Lungs, vascular smooth muscle and hepatocytes (arterial vasodilation)

Front 1195

Inhibitory neurotransmitters are

Back 1195

GABA (wide spread) and

Back 1196

Glycine (spinal cord, brain stem and retina)

Front 1197

The medulla is part of the myelencephalon which has

Back 1197

Centers to control heartbeat, respiration and blood pressure

Front 1198

The motor decussation is located

Back 1198

Superior to the junction of the medulla with the spinal cord

Front 1199

In the motor decussation

Back 1199

80% of the pyramidal fibers cross

Front 1200

Nucleus gracilus and nucleus cuneatus are located in

Back 1200

The posterior portion of the medulla

Front 1201

After synapsing in nucleus gracilus and cuneatus the pathway continues with

Back 1201

Internal arcuate fibers crossing and ascending as the medial lemniscus

Front 1202

The medial lemniscus pass to the

Back 1202

Cerebellum or thalamus – terminate in the VPL

Front 1203

The cuneocerebellar fibers arise form the

Back 1203

Accessory cuneate nucleus – uncrossed fibers – enter the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle – info from the upper extremity and neck (equivalent of the posterior spinocerebellar tract from the lower extremities)

Front 1204

The reticular formation is located at the level of the

Back 1204

High medulla

Front 1205

The Raphe nucleus is part of the

Back 1205

Reticular formation – located in the midline of the medulla, pons and midbrain – synthesizes serotonin

Front 1207

In the reticular formation are vital reflex centers

Front 1208

Cardiac center

Back 1208

Control heart rate

Front 1209

Vasomotor center

Back 1209

Controls blood pressure – diameter of blood vessels

Front 1210

Respiratory center

Back 1210

Initiates and regulates breathing

Front 1211

Vomiting, coughing, swallowing

Front 1212

Which cranial nerves originate in the medulla?

Back 1212

IX, X, XI and XII

Front 1213

CN VIII, auditory pathway (cochlear)

Back 1213

-organ of corti transmits to the cochlear nuclei in the medulla

Back 1214

– then transmits to the inferior colliculi

Front 1215

Only crossed fibers ascend – uncrossed fibers terminate in the reticular formation

Back 1215

– then to the medial geniculate nuclei of the thalamus

Back 1216

– then to auditory centers in the temporal lobes

Front 1217

Damage to the cochlear nerves causes

Back 1217

Tinnitus

Front 1218

CN VIII (vestibular)

Back 1218

Receptors are the crista in the ampulla of the semicircular canals, crista of the utricle and the crista of the saccule

Front 1219

The vestibular nuclei projects (vestibulospinal)

Back 1219

Crossed and uncrossed fibers that descend in the MLF

Front 1220

Vestibular efferent fibers from the fastigial nucleus of the cerebellum

Back 1220

Exert inhibitory influences and eliminate the effects of motion sickness and nystagmus

Front 1221

Injury to the vestibular branch of CN VIII causes

Back 1221

Vertigo, ataxia and nystagmus

Front 1222

The organs of static equilibrium are located in

Back 1222

The utricle and saccule - stimulus is gravity

Front 1223

The organs of dynamic equilibrium are located in

Back 1223

The cristi ampullaris of the semi circular canals – the stimulus is angular acceleration

Front 1224

Impulses from the cristi travel to the

Back 1224

Vetibular nuclei via the MLF

Front 1225

Right head movement causes a

Back 1225

Right nystagmus – fast to right – slow to left

Front 1226

Which cranial nerves originate from the pons?

Back 1226

V, VI, VII and VIII

Front 1227

Longitudinal bundles of the pons carry

Back 1227

Corticospinal, corticopontine and corticobulbar fibers

Front 1228

Transverse fibers of the pons originate in the

Back 1228

Pontine gray, cross the midline and go to the cerebellum via the middle cerebellar peduncle

Front 1229

The tectum is part of the midbrain and is made of

Back 1229

The roof of the cerebral aqueduct, superior colliculi and inferior colliculi

Front 1230

Midbrain at the level of the inferior colliculus

Back 1230

-reflex centers for auditory system

Front 1231

Tectum

Back 1231

- CN IV

Back 1232

- lateral lemniscus

Front 1233

Tegmentum

Back 1233

- Substantia Nigra

Front 1234

The crus cerebri is located

Back 1234

Lateral and ventral to the tegmentum

Front 1235

Middle 3/5 contains

Back 1235

Corticobulbar and corticospinal

Front 1236

Lateral 1/5 contains

Back 1236

Corticopontine from parietal, occipital and temporal lobes

Front 1237

Medial 3/5 contains

Back 1237

Frontopontine from frontal lobe

Front 1238

The only nerve that exits the dorsal brain stem is the

Back 1238

Trochlear nerve (CN IV) – totally crosses

Front 1239

The midbrain at the level of the superior colliculus contains the following nuclei…

Back 1239

Red nucleus, EW nucleus, oculomotor complex, Substantia nigra, brachium of the inferior colliculus

Front 1240

Oculomotor complex includes

Front 1241

Caudal central nucleus

Back 1241

Innervate levator

Front 1242

Dorsal nucleus

Back 1242

Innervate inferior rectus

Front 1243

Intermediate nucleus

Back 1243

Innervate inferior oblique

Front 1244

Ventral nucleus

Back 1244

Innervate medial rectus

Front 1245

EW nucelus

Front 1246

The midbrain at the level of the pretectum contains

Back 1246

The direct and consensual pupillary light reflex centers

Front 1247

The light reflex pathway is

Back 1247

ON > optic chiasm > optic tract >

Back 1248

Brachium of the superior colliculus >

Back 1249

Pretectal nuclei (synapse) >

Back 1250

Ipsilateral and contralateral EW nuclei >

Back 1251

Ciliary ganglion with inferior division of CN III >

Back 1252

Short ciliary nerves >

Back 1253

Constrictor muscles of each eye

Front 1254

Dorsal thalamus

Front 1255

Anterior nucleus

Back 1255

Relay center for impulses from the olfactory organ

Front 1256

Posterior end has two elevations

Front 1257

Lateral geniculate

Back 1257

Visual relay station

Front 1258

Medial geniculate

Back 1258

Auditory relay station

Front 1259

Hypothalamus – floor of the 3rd ventricle

Back 1259

Regulation of body temp, regulation of fat, water and CHO metabolism, sleep, sex and emotions also influenced

Front 1260

Epithalamus – root of the 3rd ventricle contains

Back 1260

Vascular structure – choroids plexus – forms CSF

Front 1261

Subthalamus - relay of sensory info to

Back 1261

Cortex concerning vision, audition and aquilibrium

Front 1262

The internal gray matter of the cerebrum is called the

Back 1262

Basal Ganglia

Front 1263

Brodmann area 4

Back 1263

Frontal lobe – pre central gyrus – motor

Front 1264

Brodmann area 1-3

Back 1264

Parietal lobe – post central gyrus – general sensation

Front 1265

Brodmann area 17

Back 1265

Occipital lobe – visual area

Front 1266

The long parallel folds of the cerebellum are called

Back 1266

Rolla cerebelli

Front 1267

The cerebellar cortex consists of

Back 1267

Purkinje cells

Front 1268

Nuclei of the cerebellum

Front 1269

Dentate nucleus

Back 1269

Largest

Front 1270

Emboliform nucleus

Front 1271

Globose nucleus

Front 1272

Fastigial nucelus

Back 1272

Lies near the midline of the4th ventricle

Front 1273

The inferior cerebellar peduncle carries connections

Back 1273

To and from the medulla oblongata and spinal cord

Front 1274

The middle cerbellar peduncle carries connections

Back 1274

To cerebellum from the pons

Front 1275

The superior cerebellar peduncle carries impulses

Back 1275

From the dentate nucleus to the midbrain

Front 1276

The maintenance of equilibrium involves the

Back 1276

Flocculonodular lobe of the cerebellum

Front 1277

The internal carotid artery enters the skull through the

Back 1277

Carotid canal in the petrous portion of the temporal bone

Front 1278

Two branched of the internal carotid artery are the

Back 1278

Posterior communicating A. and the Ophthalmic A.

Front 1280

At the very end of the ICA it divides into the

Back 1280

Ant. and middle cerebral arteries (part of the Circle of Willis)

Front 1281

The vertebral arteries are the first branches off the…

Back 1281

Subclavian arteries

Front 1282

Vertebral arteries travel in the

Back 1282

Transverse foramina of the upper six cervical vertebra

Back 1283

-enter the skull through the foreman magnum

Front 1284

The two vertebral arteries join at the

Back 1284

Posterior rim of the pons – form the Basilar A.

Front 1285

The Basilar A. continues forward and branches at the

Back 1285

Anterior rim of the pons – forms the posterior cerebral As

Front 1286

The circle of Willis includes…

Back 1286

Posterior cerebral As (from Basilar A)

Back 1287

Posterior communicating As (from ICA)

Back 1288

Anterior cerebral As (from ICA)

Back 1289

Anterior communicating A

Front 1290

Vestibuloencephalic pathway functions in

Back 1290

Coordination of eye movements

Front 1291

Vestibulospinal tract functions in the

Back 1291

Coordination of head and body movements

Front 1292

The dorsal and intermediate acoustic striae ascend as

Back 1292

Lateral lemniscus (synapse in contralateral inf. Colliculus)

Front 1293

Somasthetic system

Back 1293

Concerned with bodily sensations

Back 1294

Sends info to the postcentral gyrus of each parietal lobe

Front 1295

Limbic system

Back 1295

Concerned with emotion, autonomic activity, motivation

Back 1296

Hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala

Front 1298

Olfactory axons pass through the

Back 1298

Cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone

Front 1299

The area for smell association is located in the

Back 1299

Frontal lobe (gyrus cinguli)

Front 1300

The area for smell appreciation is in the

Back 1300

Temporal lobes (uncus)

Front 1301

The amygdaloid nucleus enables olfactory stimuli to

Back 1301

Influence food seeking and sexual behavior

Front 1303

Taste buds on posterior 1/3 of tongue

Back 1303

CN IX (glossopharyngeal) afferent neurons

Front 1304

Taste bunds on anterior 2/3 of tongue

Back 1304

CN VII (facial) afferent neurons

Front 1305

Lingual branches of nerves synapse in the

Back 1305

Solitary nucleus

Front 1306

Neurons for taste ascend in the

Back 1306

Medial lemniscus > VPL > inf. Postcentral gyrus (parietal)

Front 1308

The predominant synapse in the nervous system is

Back 1308

The chemical synapse

Front 1310

The inverse myotonic reflex involves the

Back 1310

Golgi tendon organ

Front 1311

The flexor withdrawal reflex involves the

Back 1311

Cutaneous receptors

Front 1312

Negative feedback is a

Back 1312

Corrective action to return things to normal

Front 1313

Pacinian corpuscles respond to

Back 1313

Touch (pressure), aka tactile sensation – free nerve endings encapsulated in connective tissue

Front 1314

A dynamic proprioceptor generates an action potential

Back 1314

Only with a change in direction of movement

Front 1315

The basilar membrane in the ear responds to

Back 1315

Different frequencies of sound by changing form

Front 1316

The basilar membrane has microvilli on it called

Back 1316

Hair cells

Front 1317

Movement of the hair cells toward the kinocillium

Back 1317

Results in depolarization/ activation

Front 1318

Movement of the hair cells away from the kinocilium

Back 1318

Results in inhibition/ hyperpolarization

Front 1319

Statokinetic reflexes aka righting reflexes

Back 1319

Restore normal orientation of head and body in space

Front 1320

Static reflexes depend on

Back 1320

Labyrinth organs, proprioceptors in the neck muscles, visual input and input from muscles of the trunk and limbs

Front 1321

Muscle spindles (stretch receptor) sense the

Back 1321

Length of the muscle and its velocity of contraction

Front 1322

Nuclear bag fibers are innervated by

Back 1322

Type 1a nerve fibers – info about muscle length and velocity

Front 1323

Nuclear chain fibers are innervated by

Back 1323

Type II nerve fibers – info about muscle length

Front 1324

Gamma motor neurons

Back 1324

Regulate the sensitivity of Type 1a fibers

Front 1326

Crossed corticospinal fibers form the

Back 1326

Lateral corticospinal tract – innervate distal muscles

Front 1327

Uncrossed corticospinal fibers form the

Back 1327

Ventral corticospinal tract – innervate axial muscles

Front 1328

The basal ganglia are involved with the control of

Back 1328

Mvmt that requires constant monitoring by sensory feedback

Front 1329

The cerebellum has 3 basic function

Back 1329

-planning of a movement

Back 1330

-control of posture and equilibrium

Back 1331

-control of limb movement

Front 1332

The basal ganglia include

Back 1332

Caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus)

Front 1333

Caudate and the putamen receive

Back 1333

Input to the basal ganglia

Front 1334

The globus pallidus provides

Back 1334

Output from the basal ganglia

Front 1335

Caudate and the putamen regulate

Back 1335

Unconscious contractions (arm swinging while walking)

Front 1336

Globus pallidus regulates

Back 1336

Muscle tone for specific intentional body movements

Front 1338

Vestibulospinal tract

Back 1338

Reflex control of equilibrium

Front 1339

Tectospinal tract

Back 1339

Coordination of headand body movements in response to visual, auditory and cutaneous stimuli

Front 1340

Reticulospinal tract

Back 1340

Maintain posture and control of sweat gland activity

Front 1341

Lateral reticulospinal tract

Back 1341

Innervate flexors in the control of posture

Front 1342

Rubrospinal tract

Back 1342

Control of distal flexor muscles

Front 1344

All preganglionic neurons are

Back 1344

Cholinergic (parasympathetic and sympathetic) nicotinic

Front 1345

Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons are

Back 1345

Cholinergic

Front 1346

Sympathetic posteganglionic neurons are

Back 1346

Mostly adrenergic

Front 1348

Merocrine secretion

Back 1348

Released through exocytosis (salivary and pancreatic)

Front 1349

Apocrine secretion

Back 1349

Loss of part of apical cytoplasm (sweat glands, lipid secretion in mammary glands, ceruminous glands)

Front 1350

Holocrine secretion

Back 1350

Destruction of gland (sebaceous glands, testes, ovaries, tarsal glands)

Front 1351

Loose (areolar) connective tissue

Back 1351

Can heal after injury or infection – supports the epithelial lining of the GI, respiratory and urinary tracts

Front 1352

The mineral component of bone is formed by

Back 1352

Inorganic salts and calcium hydroxyapatite

Front 1353

The cartilage at the epiphyseal growth plate is

Back 1353

Hyaline cartilage

Front 1354

The cartilage that makes intervertebral discs is

Back 1354

Fibrocartilage

Front 1355

The cartilage that makes the external ear is

Back 1355

Elastic cartilage

Front 1356

Epimysium

Back 1356

Covers muscle – continuous with tendon

Front 1357

Perimysium

Back 1357

Surrounds a muscle fascicle

Front 1358

Endomysium

Back 1358

Surrounds individual muscle fibers

Front 1359

White muscle fibers

Back 1359

Larger, faster, anaerobic, poor blood supply, low myoglobin

Front 1360

Red muscle fibers

Back 1360

Smaller, slower, aerobic, rich blood supply, rich in myoglobin

Front 1361

Cardiac m cells are similar to skeletal m except

Back 1361

Cardiac cells tend to be branched and are smaller

Front 1362

The T tubules in cardiac muscle are located

Back 1362

Only at the Z disc

Front 1363

Another name for the cell body of a neuron is

Back 1363

Perikaryon/ soma

Front 1364

Golgi type 1 neurons

Back 1364

Well developed dendritic tree and long axon

Front 1365

Golgi type 2 neurons

Back 1365

Short axon (interneruons)

Front 1366

One schwann cell can myelinate

Back 1366

Only one axon

Front 1367

One oligodendrocyte can myelinate

Back 1367

Many axons

Front 1368

Pacinian corpuscles detect

Back 1368

Deep tissue vibration and deep pressure – found in deeper layers of skin, mucous membranes, conjunctiva, cornea, heart and loose connective tissue

Front 1369

Meissner’s corpuscles detect

Back 1369

Localization of touch and texture, light touch – found in CT of palms and soles and tips of fingers and toes

Front 1370

Krause’s end bulbs

Back 1370

Detect pressure

Front 1371

Merkel’s discs are responsible for determining

Back 1371

Continuous touch – found near Meissner’s corpuscles

Front 1372

Ruffini corpuscles is a receptor for

Back 1372

Continuous touch and stretch of skin

Front 1373

Golgi tendon organs detect

Back 1373

Tension in muscle tendons during muscle contraction

Front 1374

Muscle spindles detect

Back 1374

Change in length of muscle fibers – stretch receptors

Front 1375

Three layers of arteries

Front 1376

Tunica intima

Back 1376

Inner – endothelium + basement membrane

Front 1377

Tunica media

Back 1377

Middle – circular arrangement of CT and smooth muscle

Front 1378

Tunica adventitia

Back 1378

Outer – longitudinal arrangement of fibrous CT

Front 1379

In veins there is virtually no

Back 1379

Intima or media – tunica adventitia is the thickest

Front 1380

Lymph empties into the

Back 1380

Thoracic duct – left side of heart, drains most of body

Back 1381

Right lymphatic duct – drains upper right section of body

Front 1382

Blood from the hepatic portal vein is rich in

Back 1382

Amino acids, simple sugars and other digestion products

Front 1383

The liver has a

Back 1383

Dual blood supply (venous and arterial)

Front 1384

Epithelial derivatives are impeded in the dermis

Back 1384

Hair follicles, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands

Front 1385

Sebaceous glands of the eye lid are

Back 1385

Meibomian glands

Front 1386

Sweat gland of the eye lid are

Back 1386

Glands of Moll

Front 1387

Arteries supplying the skin are located in the

Back 1387

Hypodermis

Front 1388

Papillary muscles of the heart ventricles are

Back 1388

Extensions of the myocardium and by chordae tendineae, stabilize cusps of mitral and tricuspid valves

Front 1389

Mitral valve (bicuspid)

Back 1389

Between L atrium and L ventricle

Front 1390

The lining of the bronchioles changes from

Back 1390

Pseudostratified columnal epithelium c cilia to simpli ciliated cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles

Front 1391

Left lung has 2 lobes

Back 1391

Right lung has 3 lobes

Front 1392

The resting rate for saliva production is

Back 1392

0.5ml per minute

Front 1393

Parotid gland is mostly made of

Back 1393

Serous cells – secrete a watery solution with amylase

Front 1394

Submandibular and sublingual glands contain

Back 1394

Mucous cells – secrete mucin

Front 1395

The colon has no

Back 1395

Vili – contains mainly absorptive cells

Front 1396

The rectum has extensive

Back 1396

Goblet cells present

Front 1398

The proximal tubule recovers

Back 1398

85% water and NaCl , 100% of glucose and amino acids

Front 1399

The distal tubule is controlled by

Back 1399

Aldosterone (absorbs more NaCl as the body needs)

Front 1400

The loop of Henle and the collecting tubule

Back 1400

Concentrate urine by absorbing water – regulated by ADH

Front 1401

Renal arteries arise form the

Back 1401

Abdominal aorta

Front 1402

Renal arteries branch into

Back 1402

Interlobar arteries and then to arcuate arteries

Front 1403

The arcuate arteries give rise to the

Back 1403

Cortical radial arteries that supply the afferent arterioles

Front 1405

The ectoderm gives to the

Back 1405

Skin epidermis and the nervous system

Front 1406

The GI tract is lined with epitheium from

Back 1406

Endodermal origin

Front 1407

The endoderm gives rise to

Back 1407

Liver, oancreas, gastric and intestinal glands

Front 1408

Smooth muscle is derived from

Back 1408

Mesenchyme

Front 1409

The three layers of the heart wall develop from

Back 1409

Mesenchyme

Front 1411

Pharmacodynamics

Back 1411

What drug does to body

Front 1412

Pharmacokinetics

Back 1412

What body does to drug

Front 1413

Phase I of biotransformation

Back 1413

Drug converts to a more polar metabolite

Front 1414

Phase II of biotransformation

Back 1414

Endogenous molecule combines to Phase I metabolite

Front 1415

Weak acids are removed through

Back 1415

Active tubular secretion at the proximal tubule

Front 1416

Dinoprost, dinoprostone and carboprost are

Back 1416

Prostaglandin drugs used for abortion

Front 1417

Misoprostol is used in px chronically taking NSAIDs

Back 1417

To treat gastric ulcer

Front 1418

Captopril, enalapril and lisinopril are

Back 1418

ACE inhibitors that help decrease Angiotensin levels

Front 1419

Saralasin is a drug that

Back 1419

Blocks Angiotensin receptors

Front 1420

Kinin drugs (bradykinin and kallidin) are

Back 1420

The most potent vasodilators – act on arteriole beds

Front 1421

Serotonin acts on most arteries and veins causing

Back 1421

Constriction – dilates skeletal m vessels

Front 1422

Tryptophan helps to

Back 1422

Increase rate of serotonin synthesis (an indolamine)

Front 1423

Tricyclic antidepressants (imipramine) inhibit the

Back 1423

Receptor mediated uptake of serotonin by neurons

Front 1424

MAO inhibitors inhibit the

Back 1424

Degradation of serotonin

Front 1425

Reserpine and tetrabenazine act to

Back 1425

Deplete neuronal stores of serotonin – cause depression

Front 1426

Ergot alkaloids like ergotamine, methysergide and bromocriptine are used to treat

Back 1426

Migraines and postpartum hemorrhaging

Front 1427

Tx of asthma

Front 1428

Adrenergic agonists

Back 1428

Epinephrine, ephedrine and isoproterenol (bronchdilation)

Front 1429

B2 selective adrenergic agonists

Back 1429

Metaproterenol, terbutaline and albuterol (bronchodilatin)

Front 1430

Theophylline

Back 1430

Bronchodilator – overdose cause seizures and arrhythmia

Front 1431

Cromolyn sodium

Back 1431

Stabilizes mast cell membrane – block Ca gates

Front 1432

Corticosteroids

Back 1432

Beclomethasone, flunisolide, triamcinolone, methylpred

Front 1433

Anticholinergic agents

Back 1433

Alternative to adrenergic agonists

Front 1434

Non systemic antacids for GI upset include

Back 1434

Calcium carbonate, aluminum and magnesium hydroxide

Front 1435

Sucralfate acts to

Back 1435

Bind t necrotic ulcer tissue – barrier to HCl and pepsin

Front 1436

Colloidal bismuth coat and bind to both

Back 1436

Gastric and duodenal ulcer tissue – protect from acid/pepsin

Front 1437

Disinfectant alcohols include

Back 1437

70% ethanol, 90% isopropanol – do not kill spores

Front 1438

Disinfectant aldehydes include

Back 1438

1-10% formaldehyde (kills microbes and spores by protein precipitation)

Back 1439

2% glutatldehyde in 70% isopropanol – for instruments

Front 1440

5% boric acid is used for

Back 1440

Skin lesions but is fairly toxic

Front 1441

0.1 % benzoic acid is used as a

Back 1441

Food preservative

Front 1442

Salicylic acid is used as a

Back 1442

Skin fungicide

Front 1443

1% acetic acid is used as a disinfectant in

Back 1443

Surgical dressings

Front 1444

0.005% iodide is cidal to

Back 1444

Bacteria and spores

Front 1445

10% provodone iodide (Betadinem Isodine)

Back 1445

Skin disinfectant

Front 1446

Chlorine is used to disinfect water at

Back 1446

20ppm

Front 1447

Potassium permanganate is an oxidizing agent used to

Back 1447

Disinfect weeping skin lesions

Front 1448

Nafcillin is a

Back 1448

Narrow spectrum penicillin–NOT susceptible to B lactamase

Front 1449

Cephalosporins are active against

Back 1449

G- bacteria, E.coli, Klebsiella

Front 1450

Bacitracin is only used as a

Back 1450

Topical ung for G+ bacteria – severely nephrotoxic

Front 1451

Cycloserine is a drug used against

Back 1451

TB

Front 1452

Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of

Back 1452

Mycolic acid in mycobacteria cell walls (TB)

Front 1453

Polymixins are used for

Back 1453

G- infx – lyse cell walls – neuro- and nephrotoxic

Front 1454

Erythromycin (macrolides) inhibit

Back 1454

Protein synthesis (bind 50S subunit) – target G+ organisms

Front 1455

Aminoglycosides bind the

Back 1455

30S subunit – used for serious G- infx – gentamycin, tobramycin, amikacin, streptomycin, neomycin

Front 1456

Tetracyclines block

Back 1456

TRNA at the 30S subunit

Front 1457

Chloramphenicol binds to the

Back 1457

50S subunit – can cause aplastic anemia / Gray Syndrome

Front 1458

Sulfonamides inhibit

Back 1458

Nucleic acid synthesis

Front 1459

Rifampin is used to treat infx with

Back 1459

Mycobacterium leprae – binds RNA polymerase

Front 1460

Actinomycin acts by

Back 1460

Binding DNA to block RNA synthesis

Front 1461

Polyene drugs work by binding to

Back 1461

Ergosterol in fungal membranes –

Front 1462

Nystatin

Back 1462

Too toxic for systemic use – used topically

Front 1463

Amphotericin B

Back 1463

Very toxic – used for systemic mycoses

Front 1464

Natamycin

Back 1464

Used for most eye fungal infx – low toxicity

Front 1465

Imidazole drugs (ketoconazole) inhibit the

Back 1465

Synthesis of ergosterol – less toxic

Front 1466

Griseofulvin is a drug used to treat

Back 1466

Dermatophytic infx – bonds tubulin

Front 1467

Flucytosine is a nucleic acid analog that alters the

Back 1467

Function of fungal RNA – used only for Crypto and Candida – causes reversible bone marrow inhibition

Front 1468

Sulfones and sulfonamides are used to treat

Back 1468

Malaria, toxoplasmosis and coccidiosis

Front 1469

4 hydroxyquinoline derivatives are used to treat

Back 1469

Coccidiosis – inhibit mitochondrial respiration

Front 1470

Benzimidazole derivatives

Front 1471

Infx with a nematode can be treated with

Back 1471

-ganglionic nictonic Ach agonist or

Back 1472

-GABA agonist (piperazine)

Front 1473

Praziquantel is used as an

Back 1473

Antischistosomal and anti tapeworm agent

Front 1474

Absorption and penetration of a virus is inhibited by

Back 1474

-amantidine (prevent release)

Back 1475

-gamma globulins (prevent entry)

Back 1476

-moderate to high pH

Front 1477

DNA ploymerases are affected by

Back 1477

Vidaribine, acyclovir and cytarabine

Front 1478

Amantidine

Back 1478

Tx influenza A and rubella – block penetration into host cell

Front 1479

Idoxuridine (IDU) – thymidine analog

Back 1479

Makes DNA defective – tx HSV keratitis, CMV and vaccinia – topical only due to bone marrow suppression, GI damage, hair loss and hepatotoxicity

Front 1480

Cytarabine (ara-C)

Back 1480

Used for IDU resistant HSV keratitis also for anticancer tx

Front 1481

Trifluorothymidine (trifluridine) –pyrimidine metabolite

Back 1481

Less toxic than IDU

Front 1482

Vidarabine – purine analog

Back 1482

Tx HSV, VZV, - less toxic than IDU

Front 1483

Acyclovir

Back 1483

Inhibits viral DNA polymerase – tx HSV I, VZV,EBV –

Back 1484

IV use can causehallucinations, seizures, nephrtoxicity

Front 1485

Azidothymidine (AZT) – reverse transcriptase inhibitor

Back 1485

Tx HIV – toxic to bone marrow

Front 1486

Interferons are used to treat

Back 1486

HBV, Zoster suppression and cancer tx

Front 1487

Methisazone is usedto tx

Back 1487

Small pox (variola) , vaccinia

Front 1488

Rifampin is used

Back 1488

Topically for vaccinia lesions

Front 1490

Tamoxifen is an

Back 1490

Estrogen inhibitor used to prevent metastatic breast CA

Front 1491

Carmustine (BCNU) alkylating agent used to tx

Back 1491

Metastatic CA – injected into internal carotid A

Front 1493

NSAIDs

Front 1494

Aspirin (Salicylic acid) works by

Back 1494

Irreversible inhibition of cyclooxygenase – anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic

Back 1495

Reversible inhibition of cyclooxygenase – may decrease effectivness of aspirin

Front 1496

Ibuprofen works by

Front 1497

To control rheumatoid inflammation can use

Back 1497

Hydroxychloroquine (malaria med) and gold salts

Front 1498

Opioid drugs – Morphine, heroin, codeine)

Back 1498

Aka narcotic analgesics – used to tx severe, constant pain

Back 1499

-undergo 1st pass hepatic metabolism – excreted renally

Front 1500

Opiates effect different receptors

Front 1501

Mu

Back 1501

Analgesia and physical dependence

Front 1502

Kappa

Back 1502

Spinal analgesia

Front 1503

Sigma

Back 1503

Hallucinations and cardiac stimulation

Front 1504

Side effects of opiates include

Back 1504

Sedation, nausea, vomiting, respiratory depression, miosis, bradycardia, euphoria and constipation

Front 1505

An antagonist of the opiates is

Back 1505

Naloxone

Front 1506

Tylenol (acetaminophen) has

Back 1506

Analgesic effects but no anti inflammatory effects

Front 1507

Sedative hypnotics are used to tx

Back 1507

Anxiety, convulsions and sleep disorders

Front 1508

Ethanol has very steep dose response curve

Front 1509

Benzodiazepines have a shallow dose response curve – safest of the sedative hypnotics

Back 1509

Used to treat anxiety –

Back 1510

Diazepam (valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), alprazolam (Xanax)

Front 1511

Barbiturates have a steep curve

Front 1512

Clonidine is a hypertensive drug used to tx

Back 1512

Panic attacks

Front 1513

Antipsychotics

Back 1513

Block dopamine receptors – Parkinson-like side effects

Front 1514

Tricyclics (phenothiazines)

Back 1514

Chlorpromazine, fluphenazine – fewer side effects

Front 1515

Heterocyclics (butyrophenones)

Front 1516

Antiparkinsonism

Front 1517

Levodopa

Back 1517

Penetrates the BBB and is converted to dopamine

Front 1518

Bromocriptine

Back 1518

An ergt derivative – acts on dopamine receptors

Front 1519

Pergolide (Permax)

Back 1519

Directly stimulates D1 and D2 receptors – prolongs response to levodopa

Back 1520

Retards breakdown on dopa – prolongs effect of levodopa

Front 1521

MAO inhibitors

Back 1521

COMT competes with Levodopa

Front 1522

Catecholomethyltransferase (COMT)Inhibitor

Back 1522

Antiviral c antiparkinsonian effects – mechanism unknown

Front 1523

Amantadine

Back 1523

Antimuscarinic drugs

Front 1524

Acetylcholine blocking drugs

Front 1525

Tricyclic antidepressants

Back 1525

Imipramine, amitriptyline, doxepin

Back 1526

Block reuptake of norepi – beneficial effects ~3wks

Front 1527

MAO inhibitors

Back 1527

Inhibit destruction of norepi in the presynaptic terminal

Front 1528

Second generation antidepressants

Back 1528

Tetracyclic drugs (meprotiline)

Front 1530

Phenytoin (Dilantin) is used to tx

Back 1530

Partial and grand mal seizures – nystagmus, diplopia, ataxia and sedation

Front 1531

Phenobarbital is used to tx

Back 1531

Partial and grand mal seizures

Front 1532

Primidone

Back 1532

A barbiturate analog

Front 1533

Carbamazepine (Tegretol) `

Back 1533

Blocks reuptake or norepi and blocks Na channel conduction – used in trigeminal neuralgia and partial and grand mal seizures – diplopia dn ataxia

Front 1534

Benzodiaepines are useful in treating

Back 1534

Prolonged generalized seizures

Front 1535

Valproic acid (Depakene) acts on

Back 1535

GABA to reduce generalized absence seizures

Front 1536

Four stages of anesthesia

Front 1537

1

Back 1537

Analgesia

Front 1538

2

Back 1538

Excitement – loss of consciousness- enhanced reflexes and irregular respiration

Back 1539

Surgical anesthesia – loss of pain reflex, regular respiration

Front 1540

3

Back 1540

Medullary depression – severe respiratory depression requiring ventilation

Front 1541

4

Front 1542

All general anesthetics

Back 1542

Increase the firing threshold of CNS neurons

Front 1543

Inhaled anesthetics include

Back 1543

Nitrous oxide, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane

Front 1544

Thiopental is a short acting

Back 1544

Barbiturate - induces anesthesia before using inhalants

Front 1545

Narcotic analgesics in combination with NO are used in

Back 1545

Px who unable to survive full general anesthesia

Front 1546

Ketamine is used to produce a

Back 1546

Dissociative anesthesia – amnesia, analgesia and catatonia

Front 1547

The prototypical hallucinogenic drug is

Back 1547

LSD – produces hyperarousal of the CNS

Front 1548

PCP, angel dust causes a

Back 1548

Separation of body functions from their minds without causing loss of consciousness

Front 1549

During anesthesia the order of loss is

Back 1549

Pain > temperature > touch, proprioception > muscle tone

Front 1550

Most local anesthetics are

Back 1550

weakly basic tertiary amines

Front 1551

Local anesthetics

Front 1552

Esters

Back 1552

Cocaine, proparacaine, tetracaine, benoxinate – metabolized by hydrolysis

Back 1553

Lidocaine, bupivacaine – metabolized in liver – excreted by kidney

Front 1554

Amides

Front 1555

Anesthetics with a low pKa (high lipid solubility)

Back 1555

Have faster onset

Front 1557

GH increases the

Back 1557

Number of cells – NOT the size of cells

Front 1558

Thioureylenes (eg. propylthiouracil) act to

Back 1558

Inhibit the formation of thyroid hormones

Front 1559

Sulfonylureas are drugs that

Back 1559

Stimulate the release of insulin from B cells and increase the sensitivity of the tissues to insulin

Front 1560

Ciglitazone

Back 1560

Increase the number of insulin receptors

Front 1561

Glucosidase inhibitors

Back 1561

Reduce GI absorption of carbohydrates

Front 1562

Progesterone is mainly secreted by the

Back 1562

Corpus luteum at the end of the cycle

Front 1563

The main determinant for the inset of menstruation is

Back 1563

Progesterone

Front 1564

The endometrium is maintained during pregnancy by

Back 1564

Progesterone

Front 1565

Proliferation of acini of mammary glands is due to

Back 1565

Estrogen and progesterone

Front 1566

Thiazide diuretics

Back 1566

Act on early segments of the distal tubule

Back 1567

Bendrofluazide, hydrochlorothiazide, metolazone

Back 1568

May cause gout. Not used in NIDDM

Front 1569

Loop diuretics

Back 1569

Frusemide, bumetanide

Back 1570

Can be used in px with impaired renal function – can lead to deafness in high doses

Front 1571

Potassium sparing diuretics

Back 1571

Spironolactone (antagonistic to aldosterone )

Back 1572

Amiloride and triamcinolone (block Na channels)

Back 1573

Act on the aldosterone responsive segments of the distal tubule

Front 1574

CAI inhibitors

Back 1574

Depress bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal tubule

Back 1575

Acetazolamide is used to tx glaucoma

Front 1577

Clonidine (Catapres)

Back 1577

Stimulates alpha2 receptors to lower BP – used with a diuretic

Front 1578

Methyldopa (Aldomet)

Back 1578

Lowers BP – side effects include marked drowsiness, depression and nightmares

Front 1579

Resperine (Raudixin, Syrosingopine) causes a

Back 1579

Decrease in catecholamines and serotonin in nerves – causes parasympathetic side effects

Front 1580

Prazosin (minipress) acts by

Back 1580

Blocking post synaptic alpha2 receptors on blood vessels – prevents peripheral vasoconstriction – dilates arteries and veins

Front 1581

Phentolamine

Back 1581

Blocks alpha 1 and 2 receptors – NOT used in HTN

Front 1582

Phenoxybenzamine

Back 1582

Blocks alpha 1 and 2 receptors – NOT used in HTN

Front 1583

Propranolol blocks

Back 1583

Beta 1 and 2 – blocks rennin release – reduces CO – used with a diuretic – may induce an asthma attack

Front 1584

Metoprolol and Atenolol (Tenormin) block

Back 1584

Only beta 1

Front 1585

Nadolol (Cogard)

Front 1586

Guanethidine blocks

Back 1586

Catecholamine release – does not cross BBB

Front 1587

Vasodilators

Back 1587

Lower BP by relaxation of vascular smooth muscle

Front 1588

Hydralazine (Apresoline)

Back 1588

Only for emergency – inhibits insulin release

Front 1589

Diazoxide (Hyperstat)

Back 1589

Used when nothing else works – cause Na retention

Front 1590

Minoxidil (Loniten)

Back 1590

Used in hypertensive crisis

Front 1591

Nitroprusside (Nipride)

Front 1592

Ca channel blocker (Nifedipine)

Front 1593

Captopril is an

Back 1593

ACE inhibitor (inhibits angiotensin I to angiotensin II)

Front 1594

Angiotensin II functions to

Back 1594

Elevate BP, increase contraction of smooth muscle, mediates release of aldosterone, increase release of catecholamines from adrenal medulla and adrenergic nerves

Front 1595

Cardiac glycosides (cardenolides) are used to treat

Back 1595

Congestive heart failure

Front 1596

Digitalis

Back 1596

Slows heart rate (direct action on SA node)

Back 1597

Increases force of contraction (inotropic)

Back 1598

Increases refractory period at AV node (controls A Fib)

Front 1599

Digitoxin

Back 1599

Have a low margin of safety

Front 1600

Quabain

Back 1600

Highly bound to plasma protein

Back 1601

Highly polar

Front 1602

Dobutamine (Dobutrex)

Back 1602

Synthetic derivative of isoproterenol – increases heart contractility – decreases tachycardia

Front 1603

Amrinone

Back 1603

Bypyridine derivative – inotropic drug

Front 1604

Sodium channel blockers

Back 1604

Act by increasing the effective refractory period (ERP) of depolarized cells – reduces arrhythmias by reducing automaticity in ectopic pacemakers – also have local anesthetic properties

Front 1605

Quinidine, Procainamide, Lidocaine, Phenytoin

Front 1606

Beta blockers like propranolol are used to control

Back 1606

Supraventricular arrhythmias – increase ERP – decrease conduction through AV node

Front 1607

Bretylium acts to

Back 1607

Increase the ERP of the atria, ventricle and AV node – used to control life threatening ventricular arrhythmias in the ICU

Front 1608

Potassium channel blockers work to control arrhythmia

Back 1608

By prolonging cardiac action potentials

Front 1609

Calcium channel blockers are used to control

Back 1609

Supraventricular arrhythmias – depress AV node conduction

Back 1610

Verapamil

Front 1611

Digitalis can control arrhythmias by

Back 1611

Increasing the AV ERP – prevents ventricular tachycardia in atrial arrhythmias

Front 1612

K ion preferentially inhibits the

Back 1612

Automaticity of ectopic pacemakers

Front 1613

Antiangina drugs

Front 1614

Nitrates (nitroglycerine)

Back 1614

Vasodilation – lowers BP and preload and afterload – decreases oxygen demand

Front 1615

Calcium channel blockers

Back 1615

(Verapamil, Nifedipine, Diltiazem) – reduce oxygen demand – vasodilation and decrease contractility

Front 1616

Beta blockers

Back 1616

(Propranolol, Inderal) – lower oxygen demand by decreasing HR – and myocardial contractility

Front 1617

Fibrinolytic drugs

Back 1617

Convert circulating plasminogen to plasmin to dissolve fibrin clot - used to treat pulmonary emboli

Front 1618

Urokinase

Back 1618

Also used to treat coronary thrombosis

Front 1619

Streptokinase

Front 1620

Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)

Back 1620

Activates fibrin-bound plasminogen to plasmin – more effective than Streptokinase – fewer side effects

Front 1622

Antithrombotic drugs block the action of

Back 1622

Cyclooxygenase – decrease in thromboxane – reduces platelet aggregation – aspirin, ibuprophen, dextran

Front 1623

Gemfibrozil (Lopid) is used to

Back 1623

Lower VLDL, LDL and triglycerides – raise HDL

Back 1624

Side effects: blurred vision, lens opacities

Front 1625

Lovastatin (Mevacor, Mevinolin)

Back 1625

Inhibit HMG CoA reductase – inhibit conversion of HMG CoA to mevalonate (early step in cholesterol synthesis) VLDL, LDL and TRIG decrease, HDL increases

Back 1626

Side effects: blurred vision, lens opacities

Front 1627

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (Acetazolamide)

Back 1627

Decrease bicarbonate and NaCl reabsorption in the proximal tubule – may cause metabolic acidosis

Front 1628

Osmotic diuretics (Mannitol, Isosorbide)

Back 1628

Filtered by glomerulus – not reabsorbed due to size so water is excreted with them

Front 1629

Loop diuretics (Furosemide (Lasix) , Ethacrynic acid)

Back 1629

Very powerful – short acting – inhibit NaCl transport in the thick ascending loop of Henle – used in acute pulmonary edema

Front 1630

Thiazide diuretics (Chlorothiazide, Hydrocholothiazide)

Back 1630

Inhibit Cl reabsorption in the distal tubule – long acting – decrease blood volume and arterial dilation – used in CHF, diabetes insipidus

Front 1631

Aldosterone antagonist (Spironolactone, Triamterene)

Back 1631

Weakest diuretic – effects the collecting tubule where aldosetrone functions – potassium sparing

Front 1632

Benemid (Probenecid) is used to treat

Back 1632

Hyperuricemia associated with gout

Front 1633

Anturane

Back 1633

Increase urinary excretion of uric acid – useful in chronic gout and acute intermittent gout

Front 1634

Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) def =

Back 1634

Beriberi – paralysis, heart failure and death

Front 1635

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) def =

Back 1635

Pellagra – diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia and death

Front 1636

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) def =

Back 1636

Greasy, scaly rash on face and corners or mouth, red sore tongue, mental depression and confusion

Front 1637

Folate def =

Back 1637

Megaloblastic anemia

Front 1638

Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) def =

Back 1638

Pernicious anemia

Front 1639

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) def =

Back 1639

Swollen, inflamed lips with cracks at corners

Front 1640

Pantothenoic acid is a component of

Back 1640

Coenzyme A

Front 1641

Def =

Back 1641

Irritability, restlessness, burning feet

Front 1642

Biotin acts as a coenzyme in the synthesis of

Back 1642

Protein and fats

Front 1643

Def =

Back 1643

Depression, appetite loss, weariness, sleepiness,

Front 1644

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) def =

Back 1644

Scurvy

Front 1645

Vitamin A, retinol, retinoic acid, retinal, Beta carotene

Back 1645

Def = night blindness, mucous membrane abnormalities

Front 1646

Vitamin D (calciferol) def =

Back 1646

Rickets, osteomalacia

Front 1647

Vitamin K def =

Back 1647

Hemophilia like bleeding disorder

Front 1648

Vitamin E def =

Back 1648

Results in abortion of a fetus in females

Front 1650

The supravaginal space of Schwalbe is found

Back 1650

Around the ON between limiting membrane and dura

Front 1651

Volume of the orbital cavity is

Back 1651

29ml

Front 1652

The orbit consists of 7 bones

Back 1652

Maxillary (facial) – floor and medial wall

Back 1653

Zygomatic (facial) – lateral wall and floor

Back 1654

Palatine (facial) – floor

Back 1655

Lacrimal (facial) – medial wall

Back 1656

Frontal (cranial) – roof

Back 1657

Sphenoid (cranial) – lateral wall, floor and medial wall

Back 1658

Ethmoid (cranial) – medial wall (lamina papyracea)

Front 1659

CN V > ophthalmic div > Frontal branch >

Back 1659

Supratrochlear and Surpaorbital

Front 1660

CN V > ophthalmic div > Lacrimal branch >

Back 1660

Superior div (lateral palpebral branch) , Inferior div

Front 1661

CN V > ophthalmic div > Nasociliary branch >

Back 1661

Porterior and anterior ethmoidal branches, Infratrochlear branch, sensory root and long posterior ciliary nerve

Front 1662

The terminal branches of the ophthalmic A are the

Back 1662

Frontal A (aka supratrochlear A), Dorsal nasal A

Front 1663

Branches of the external carotid artery

Front 1664

Facial A.

Back 1664

> branches to angular A.

Front 1665

Superficial Temporal A.

Back 1665

> supplies side of face and eyelids

Front 1666

Internal maxillary A.

Back 1666

> infraorbital A, orbital branch of middle meningeal A. (aka recurrent meningeal A)

Back 1667

> provides collateral circulation to the orbit

Front 1668

The ophthalmic A is the

Back 1668

7th branch of the internal carotid

Front 1669

Central retinal A is the 1st branch of the Ophthalmic A.

Back 1669

Enters the orbit in the center of the optic nerve

Front 1670

Lacrimal A. is the 2nd branch of the ophthalmic A

Back 1670

There are 4 branches of the lacrimal A

Front 1671

Recurrent meningeal A

Back 1671

Aka recurrent lacrimal A – enters through the SOF

Front 1672

Muscular A

Back 1672

Supplies SR and LR

Front 1673

Zygomatic A

Back 1673

Zygomaticofacial and Zygomaticotemporal

Front 1674

Superior and inferior lateral palpebral A

Front 1675

Superior muscular A supplies (direct brn of ophthalmic)

Back 1675

SR, SO and levator

Front 1676

Inferior muscular A supplies (direct brn of ophthalmic)

Back 1676

IR, IO and MR

Front 1677

Posterior ciliary As branch off the ophthalmic A and

Back 1677

Form the Circle of Zinn Haller around the optic nerve

Front 1678

The Pial artery is a branch of the ophthalmic A and

Back 1678

Vasculaizes the pia mater of the optic nerve

Front 1679

Supraorbital A branched off the ophthalmic A –supplies

Back 1679

Orbit roof, frontal sinuses, eye brows, SR and levator, scalp

Front 1680

Anterior and posterior ethmoidal As are both branches

Back 1680

Of the ophthalmic A

Front 1681

Dorsal nasal A anastomoses with

Back 1681

The angular branch of the fracial A

Front 1682

Veins DO NOT have valves which allows for

Back 1682

Bidirectinal blood flow

Front 1683

Superior ophthalmic vein (SOV)

Front 1684

Frontal drainage route

Back 1684

Anastomose with angular V via orbital V –

Front 1685

Back drainage route

Back 1685

To the cavernous sinus > inferior petrosal sinus > internal jugular > brachiocephalic > sup vena cava > r. atrium

Front 1686

Central retinal vein drains the

Back 1686

Retina – connects with SOV in posterior orbit

Front 1687

Vortex veins drain

Back 1687

A quadrant of the posterior eye to the SOV

Front 1688

Anterior ciliary vein drains the

Back 1688

Front part of the eyeball

Front 1689

Inferior orbital vein exits the orbit independently of the

Back 1689

SOV – leaves through the inf. orbital fissure to the pterygoid venous plexus in the inferior temporal fossa

Front 1690

IOV continues to the

Back 1690

> internal maxillary V > retromandibular V > external jugular V > subclavian > sup vena cava – drains the bottom of the orbit

Front 1691

Cavernous sinus is formed anteriorly by the

Back 1691

SOV and communicates posteriorly with the inferior and superior petrosal sinuses

Front 1692

Intracranial sinuses are lined with

Back 1692

Dura mater

Front 1693

Pterygoid venous plexus is located

Back 1693

Outside the cranium and is NOT lined with dura – mass of small veins found below the cavernous sinuses

Front 1694

Pterygoid venous plexus communicates to the

Back 1694

Cavernous sinus through emissary veins

Front 1695

There are NO lymph nodes of lymph vessels in the

Back 1695

Orbit

Front 1696

CN IV (trochlear) innervates the

Back 1696

SO on the orbital side of the muscle

Front 1697

The only CN with origin on the dorsal surface of brain stem is the …

Back 1697

Trochlear N (CN IV)

Front 1698

Lesion of SO results in the eye moving

Back 1698

Up and In and extorting – head tilt away from lesion

Front 1699

CN V (Trigeminal N) originates from the

Back 1699

Ventrolateral surface of the pons

Front 1700

Divisions of CN V =

Back 1700

Ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular

Front 1701

Preganglionic sympathetic cell bodies are located in the

Back 1701

Lateral horn of gray and leave the spinal cord through the ventral root

Front 1702

The internal carotid nerved gives rise to the

Back 1702

Sympathetic carotid plexus – from lateral branch

Back 1703

Sympathetic cavernous plexus – from medial branch

Front 1704

Number of lashes on upper lid

Back 1704

100-150

Front 1705

Number of lashes on lower lid

Back 1705

50-80

Front 1706

The tarsal plates are made of

Back 1706

Fibrous and elastic tissue – NO cartilage

Front 1707

Meibomian glands are located in the

Back 1707

Tarsal plates

Front 1708

Blood supply to the eyelids

Front 1709

Facial system

Back 1709

External carotid A > facial A > angular A

Back 1710

External carotid A > internal maxillary A > intraorbital A

Front 1711

Orbital system

Back 1711

Superficial temporal A

Back 1712

Internal carotid A > ophthalmic A > dorsal nasal A, supratrochlear A, supraorbital A, lacrimal A

Front 1713

Venous drainage of the eyelids

Front 1714

Facial system

Back 1714

Angular V > anterior facial V > external jugular V

Back 1715

Superior temporal V > retiromandibular vein > external jugular V

Back 1716

Infraorbital V > pterygoid venous plexus >internal maxiallary V >

Front 1717

Orbital systems

Back 1717

external jugular

Back 1718

Supraorbital V, Supratrichlear V > superior ophthalmic V >

Back 1719

cavernous sinus > internal jugular V

Back 1720

Lacrimal V > Inferior ophthalmic V > cavernous sinus > internal

Back 1721

jugular V

Back 1722

Anterior facial V

Front 1723

Lymphatic drainage of the eyelids and conjunctiva

Front 1724

Medial portion of eye

Back 1724

Submaxillary or submandibular nodes

Front 1725

Lateral portion of eye

Back 1725

Preauricular or parotid nodes

Front 1726

Ophthalmic division of CN V receives sensory info from

Back 1726

Upper eye lid

Front 1727

Maxillary division of CN V receives sensory info from

Back 1727

Lower eye lid

Front 1728

Accessory lacrimal glands of Kraus and Wolfring are

Back 1728

Located in the conjunctiva – secrete serous/ aqueous fluid

Front 1729

Blood supply to the conjunctiva is through the

Back 1729

Peripheral arteriole arcades, marginal arteriole arcades and the anterior ciliary artery

Front 1730

Venous drainage of the conjunctiva is through the

Back 1730

Superior and inferior palpebral plexus

Front 1731

Sensory innervation to the conjunctiva is by the

Back 1731

Supratrochlear and Infratrochlear branches of CN V

Front 1733

Corneal diameter

Back 1733

Anterior. 11.7mm (horizontal) 10.6mm (vertical)

Back 1734

Posterior 11.7mm circular

Front 1735

Corneal radius of curvature

Back 1735

Anterior 7.8mm, Posterior 6.5mm

Front 1736

Corneal thickness

Back 1736

Central 0.52mm, peripheral 0.67mm

Front 1737

5 layers of the cornea

Back 1737

Central 5mm has the greatest nerve density

Front 1738

Epithelium

Back 1738

Cornea is 72-82% water

Back 1739

50um (10% of corneal thickness) – continuous with conj

Back 1740

Surface cells with microvilli –

Back 1741

Wing cells –polygonal cells

Front 1742

Bowman’s layer

Back 1742

Basal cells – germinal layer – regenerates epithelium

Back 1743

Basal lamina – between basal cells an Bowman’s – regenerates

Back 1744

Cellular fibrous tissue, made of MPS and GAG –not a true membrane – indistinguishable from stroma – CANNOT regenerate –

Back 1745

90% corneal thickness (470um)

Front 1746

Corneal stroma

Back 1746

Lamellae (200-250 – each 2um thick) – half life of each lamella is 100 days – lamellae are held in place by MPS and glycoproteins (ground substance

Back 1747

Cells 2-5% stromal volume – fibroblasts synthesize collagen and MPS and bind lamellae in their ordered position – Schwann cells make up nerve sheaths – lymphocytes and macrophages

Back 1748

aka posterior limiting membrane – true basement membrane for endothelium – ends at Schwalbe’s line – cen regenerate – sharp differentiation from stroma – made of collagen, MPS and GAGs – thickens with age – not innervated

Back 1749

single layer of hexagonal cells – synthesizes Descemet’s membrane – microvilli protrude into anterior chamber – very metabolically active – not innervated – regeneration limited

Front 1752

Descemet’s membrane

Front 1758

Endothelium

Front 1759

Hassal Henle warts are

Back 1759

Localized thickening in the peripheral cornea – seen as dark spots of holes in the endothelium

Front 1760

Radius of curvature of the sclera is

Back 1760

11mm

Front 1761

The sclera is thinnest

Back 1761

Posterior to the insertion of the recti muscles (0.3mm)

Front 1762

The sclera is thickest near the

Back 1762

Optic nerve (1.0mm)

Front 1763

Sclera contains

Back 1763

65% water

Front 1764

Tenon’s capsule is between the

Back 1764

Conjunctival stroma and underlying episcleral tissue

Front 1765

Episcleral space is the potential space between

Back 1765

Tenon’s capsule and the episclera

Front 1766

Suprachoroidal space is between the

Back 1766

Sclera and choroid and is where the long and short posterior ciliary nerves travel

Front 1767

Three layers of the sclera

Front 1768

Episclera

Back 1768

Dense, vascular connective tissue

Front 1769

Scleral stroma

Back 1769

Bundles of collagen and fibroblasts and ground substance

Front 1770

Lamina fusca

Back 1770

Increased pigment

Front 1771

Volume of the anterior chamber

Back 1771

0.25ml

Front 1772

Anterior chamber depth

Back 1772

Women 3.41- 3.65mm – men 3.61-3.70mm

Front 1773

The internal scleral sulcus is mostly occupied by

Back 1773

Trabecular meshwork

Front 1774

The Apex of trabecular meshwork is located near

Back 1774

Schwalbe’s line (end of Descemet’s) – 3-5 layers thick

Front 1775

The Base of trabecular meshwork is formed by the

Back 1775

Scleral spur and the ciliary body – 15-20 layers thick

Front 1778

3 sections of trabecular meshwork

Front 1779

Corneoscleral meshwork

Back 1779

Flat fenestrated sheets of tissue – filtering holes called intratrabecular spaces – larger holes are called “spaces of Fontana”, decrease in size toward Schlemm’s canal

Back 1780

Most internal component – most anterior extension of the uvea – aka uveal “chords” –

Front 1781

Uveal meshwork

Back 1781

Aka iris processes – extend from iris root to the uveal meshwork – bridge the ACA – about 100 present per eye

Front 1782

Pectinate fibers

Front 1783

Schlemm’s canal is a

Back 1783

Circular venous channel – lies on the outer portion of the internal scleral sulcus

Front 1784

Internal collecting channels of Schlemm’s canal are

Back 1784

Internal collector channels of Sondermann

Front 1785

Aqueous flow…

Back 1785

Trabecular meshwork (diffusion) > Schlemm’s canal (active transport) > deep scleral plexus > intrascleral venous plexus > aqueous veins of Asher > episcleral veins > anterior ciliary veins

Front 1786

The inner wall of Schlemm’s canal is called the

Back 1786

Justacanalicular tissue – lined with endothelium

Front 1787

The iris is thickest at the

Back 1787

Collarette (0.6mm) site of minor arteriole circle of the iris

Front 1788

Diameter of the iris =

Back 1788

12mm

Front 1789

Circumference of the iris =

Back 1789

37.5mm

Front 1790

The only pigment found in the iris is

Back 1790

Melanin

Front 1791

Blood supply to the iris

Front 1792

Major arterial circle

Back 1792

In the ciliary body along iris border – anastomoses between Anterior ciliary and Long Posterior ciliary arteries

Front 1793

Minor arterial circle

Back 1793

Located at the level of the collarette – formed by radial branches from the major circle

Front 1794

Microscopic anatomy of the iris

Front 1795

Anterior border layer

Back 1795

Condensation of stromal tissue – fibroblasts and melanocytes – few collagen fibers

Front 1796

Stroma

Back 1796

Loose collagenm ground substance, elastin – continuous with CB stroma – melanocytes, lymphocytes, fibroblasts, mast cells –

Back 1797

Clump cells (pigmented macrophages in papillary region)

Front 1798

Sphincter muscle

Back 1798

In pupillary portion of the stroma

Front 1799

Anterior epithelium

Back 1799

Continuous with the external pigment epithelium of the CB – contains myoepithelial cells – muscular processes make up the dilator muscle

Back 1800

Developed from and an integral part of the anterior epithelium

Front 1801

Dilator muscle

Back 1801

Single row, heavily pigmented columnar epithelial cells – basal surface contacts aqueous humor of post chember

Front 1802

Posterior pigment epithelium

Front 1803

Posterior chamber volume =

Back 1803

0.06ml (decreases with accommodation and dilation)

Front 1804

3 divisions of the posterior chamber

Front 1805

Posterior chamber proper

Back 1805

Posterior to iris – anterior to lens zonules

Front 1806

Zonular portion (Canal of Hanover)

Back 1806

Space between zonule fibers

Front 1807

Retrozonular portion

Back 1807

Posterior to zonules – anterior to anterior hyloid of vitreous

Front 1808

The Pars plana (orbicularis ciliaris )portion of the CB

Back 1808

Runs from ora to ciliary processes -

Front 1809

The Pars plana produces

Back 1809

MPS for vitreous

Front 1810

The Pars plicata (corona ciliaris) produces

Back 1810

Aqueous humor

Front 1811

Layers of the CB include

Front 1812

Unpigmented epithelium

Back 1812

Most internal layer – one cell thick – continuous anteriorly with the pigmented epithelium of iris and posteriorly with the nervous retina at ora

Back 1813

Continuous anteriorly with unpigmented epithelium of iris and posteriorly with RPE at ora – thickens with age

Front 1814

pigmented epithelium

Back 1814

Inner connective tissue layer – loose tissue external to the basement membrane – collagen, blood vessels, nerves, fibroblasts and mast cells – contains ciliary muscle

Front 1815

stroma

Back 1815

Most external layer – lies next to lamina fusca of sclera – fibroblasts and melanocytes

Front 1816

supraciliaris

Front 1817

The ciliary stroma becomes choroids at the

Back 1817

Ora serrata

Front 1818

At ora the supraciliaris of the CB becomes the

Back 1818

Suprachoroid

Front 1819

At ora the external pigmented epithelium of CB

Back 1819

Becomes pigmented epithelium of the retina

Front 1820

The unpigmented epithelium of CB becomes

Back 1820

Nervous retina

Front 1821

Blood supply to the CB includes

Back 1821

2 long post ciliary As and 7 anterior ciliary As

Front 1822

3 portions of the ciliary muscle

Front 1823

Longitudinal portion

Back 1823

(aka Brucke’s muscle, Meridional fibers) – origin at SS – insertion into choroid (epichoroidal muscle stars) – moves choroid anteriorly

Back 1824

(oblique fibers) – origin SS – insertion at ciliary processes and Pars Plana – pulls pars plana anteriorly

Front 1825

Radial portion

Back 1825

(aka Mueller’s muscle, Ciliary sphincter) – origin SS – insertion into anterior part of ciliary processes – constricts lens aperture

Front 1826

Circular portion

Front 1827

Zonules originate in the

Back 1827

Pars plana

Front 1828

The anterior Y suture is

Back 1828

Erect

Front 1829

The posterior Y suture is

Back 1829

Inverted

Front 1830

Y sutures are found in what area of the lens

Back 1830

Fetal nucleus

Front 1831

Lens epithelium is present at the

Back 1831

Equator and anteriorly under the capsule – NOT posteriorly

Front 1832

How many lens fibers are there in an adult lens?

Back 1832

2000

Front 1833

Large blood vessels in the stroma of the choroid are

Back 1833

Haller’s vessels

Front 1834

Small blood vessels in the stroma of the choroid are

Back 1834

Sattler’s vessels

Front 1835

Anterior ½ of choroid is supplied by

Back 1835

2 long posterior ciliary As to major arterial circle of the iris

Front 1836

Posterior ½ of choroid is supplied by

Back 1836

Many short posterior clilary As – form the circle of Zin-Haller

Front 1837

The choroid is mainly drained by the

Back 1837

4 vortex veins

Front 1838

Anterior ciliary veins drain the

Back 1838

Anterior ½ of the choroid via the limbal plexus

Front 1839

Pial veins drain the

Back 1839

Optic nerve meninges and part of the posterior choroid

Front 1840

Bruch’s membrane is the innermost layer of the choroid

Back 1840

Adjacent to the RPE

Front 1841

Layers of Bruch’s membrane

Front 1842

Basement membrane of RPE

Back 1842

Actually a retinal layer (0.3um)

Front 1843

Inner collagenous zone

Back 1843

No nerves no cells (1.5um)

Front 1844

Elastic layer

Back 1844

Backbone of Bruch’s membrane (0.8um)

Front 1845

Outer collagenous zone

Back 1845

Fibroblasts, no nerves (0.7um)

Front 1846

Basement membrane of choriocapillaris

Back 1846

Outermost layer (0.14um)

Front 1847

The volume of the vitreous is

Back 1847

4ml

Front 1848

Vitreous attachments

Front 1849

Vitreous base

Back 1849

Firmest (2mm forward on CB and 4mm onto retina)

Front 1850

Peripapillary attachment

Back 1850

Loosens with age

Front 1851

Macular attachment

Back 1851

4mm centered around fovea (Maxwell’s spot)

Front 1852

Haloideocapsulary ligament

Back 1852

Weigner’s or pectinate ligament – around post lens surface

Front 1853

The area of Martegiani is the area around the

Back 1853

ON where Cloquet’s canal flares out

Front 1854

Cloquet’s canal is a remnant of

Back 1854

Primary vitreous (hyaloid artery)

Front 1855

Layers of the retina

Front 1856

RPE

Back 1856

Uniform single layer of hexagonal shaped cells – more pigment in the macular region

Front 1857

Photoreceptors

Back 1857

Thin, fenestrated layer

Front 1858

External limiting membrane

Back 1858

Cell bodies of rods and cones – nuclei and cytoplasm

Front 1859

Outer nuclear layer

Back 1859

Photoreceptor axons synapse with bipolar and horizontal cells – Muller cells fill in and have a nutritive function

Front 1860

Outer plexiform layer

Back 1860

Cell bodies of horizontal, bipolar, Muller and amacrine cells

Front 1861

Inner nuclear layer

Back 1861

Synapses between bipolar cells (1st order neuron) , amacrine cells and ganglion cells (2nd order neuron)

Front 1862

Inner plexiform layer

Back 1862

Cell bodies of ganglion cells

Front 1863

Ganglion cell layer

Back 1863

Axons of ganglion cells

Front 1864

Nerve fiber layer

Back 1864

Lines the vitreous face of the retina

Front 1865

Internal limiting membrane

Front 1866

In cases of retinal detachment the RPE…

Back 1866

Stays connected to Bruch’s membrane

Front 1867

The RPE provides photoreceptors with

Back 1867

Vitamin A, glucose and oxygen

Front 1868

Horizontal cells make connections between

Back 1868

Photoreceptors and other horizontal cells

Front 1869

Amacrine cells make connections between

Back 1869

Different ganglion cells

Front 1870

Photoreceptor layers receive blood from the

Back 1870

Choroid (outer nuclear and plexiform)

Front 1871

Inner retinal layers are supplied by the

Back 1871

Central retinal artery

Front 1872

Area centralis is located

Back 1872

4mm temporal and 0.08mm inferior to the optic disc

Front 1873

The perifovea is

Back 1873

1.5mm in width and 2.25mm from the fovea

Front 1874

The largest accumulation of nerve cells in the retina is

Back 1874

In the parafovea (2.1mm in width) around the fovea

Front 1875

The parafoveal layer has a thick

Back 1875

Outer plexiform layer (layer of Henle)

Front 1876

The fovea is

Back 1876

1.5mm in diameter – receptor layer has CONES ONLY

Front 1877

The foveola is

Back 1877

0.35mm across and contains only photoreceptors and glial cells

Front 1878

Ora serrata is located

Back 1878

8.5 mm from limbus…6mm from equator…25mm from ONH

Front 1879

measures

Back 1879

2.1mm temporally…0.8mm nasally

Front 1880

The prelaminar portion of the optic nerve is protected by

Back 1880

Astrocytes that make up the intermediary tissue of Kuhnt, glial mantle of Fuchs or Graefe and the border tissue of Jacoby

Front 1881

The inner limiting membrane of Elschnig is where

Back 1881

The glial layer thickens over the ONH

Front 1882

The Meniscus of Kuhnt is where

Back 1882

Elschnig fills the optic cup

Front 1883

Nasal macular fibers cross at the

Back 1883

Center of the optic chiasm

Front 1884

The fist contact of the optic tract with the brain is the

Back 1884

Cerebral pedulcles

Front 1885

The optic tract divides sending the lateral part to the

Back 1885

LGN and the medial part to the superior colliculus and pretectum

Front 1886

Superior retina sends info to the

Back 1886

Medial part of the LGN

Front 1887

Interior retina sends info to the

Back 1887

Lateral part of the LGN

Front 1888

The cuneus (above calcarine fissure) maps the

Back 1888

Lower visual field (superior retina)

Front 1889

The lingual gyrus (below the calcarine fissure) maps

Back 1889

Superior visual field (inferior retina)

Front 1890

Layers 1,4,6 of the LGN are

Back 1890

Contralateral, nasal hemiretina, temporal crescent

Front 1891

Layer 2,3,5 of the LGN are

Back 1891

Ipsilateral, temporal hemiretina

Front 1892

Layer 4C alpha of the visual cortex has the

Back 1892

Ocular dominance columns

Front 1894

All ocular tissues develop from 3 embryological layers

Back 1894

Neural ectoderm, surface ectoderm and mesenchyme

Front 1895

Retinal layers derive from

Back 1895

Neural ectoderm

Front 1896

The optic cup is formed by the invagination of

Back 1896

Neural ectoderm

Front 1897

The innermost layer of the optic cup forms the

Back 1897

Inner and outer neuroblastic layers

Front 1898

The inner neuroblastic layer forms the

Back 1898

Ganglion cells, amacrine cells and Muller cells

Front 1899

Outer neuroblastic layer forms the

Back 1899

Bipolar cells, photoreceptors and horizontal cells

Front 1900

The outermost layer of the optic cup becomes the

Back 1900

RPE

Front 1901

The anterior part of the optic cup forms the

Back 1901

Epithelium of the ciliary body and posterior surface of iris

Front 1902

The inner (posterior) pigmented layer of the iris is

Back 1902

Continuous with the non pigmented layer of the CB epithelium

Front 1903

Outer lightly pigmented layer of iris is continuous with

Back 1903

The pigmented layer of the CB epithelium

Front 1904

The iris dilator and sphincter develop from the

Back 1904

Outer lightly pigmented layer of iris epithelium (neural ectoderm)

Front 1905

Surface ectoderm is induced to form the lens placode

Back 1905

By close association with the optic vesicle (neural ectoderm)

Front 1906

After the lens sack detaches the surface ectoderm

Back 1906

Continues on to form the eye lids

Front 1907

Surface ectoderm also forms the accessory glands of

Back 1907

Krause, Zeiss, Wolfring, Moll and meibomian glands

Front 1908

The lacrimal glands and drainage system also come

Back 1908

From the surface ectoderm

Front 1910

Anything that tears touch comes from the

Back 1910

Surface ectoderm

Front 1912

Mesenchyme originates from both

Back 1912

Neural crest and mesoderm

Front 1913

The hyaloid A and V are formed when

Back 1913

Mesenchyme enters through the embryonic/choroidal fissure

Front 1914

Corneal epithelium and primary stroma are formed by

Back 1914

Surface ectoderm

Front 1915

Corneal endothelium is formed by

Back 1915

The first wave of neural crest mesenchyme (7th wk)

Front 1916

The future corneal stroma is formed by the

Back 1916

Second wave of neural crest mesenchyme (8th wk)

Front 1917

Ciliary muscles are formed from

Back 1917

Mesenchyme

Front 1918

Vascular choroid and tough sclera are formed from

Back 1918

Mesenchyme

Front 1919

The EOMs are derived from

Back 1919

Mesenchyme

Front 1920

The bones of the orbit are formed from

Back 1920

Mesenchyme

Front 1921

Most bone sutures in the orbit close at

Back 1921

6-7 months

Front 1922

The sphenoid bond suture closes at the end of

Back 1922

The first year

Front 1923

SR, SO and levator develop from the

Back 1923

Superior mesoderm condensation

Front 1924

IR and IO develop from the

Back 1924

Inferior mesoderm condensation

Front 1925

MR and LR develop from

Back 1925

Both condensations

Front 1926

CN III, IV and VI evolve in the

Back 1926

Cranial portion of the neural tube (III 4th wk)(IV 7th wk)(all 8th wk)

Front 1927

The skin lids, glands and conjunctiva develop from

Back 1927

Surface ectoderm

Front 1928

The tarsal plate, orbicularis oculi, levator aponeurosis and smooth muscle of the eye lid are from

Back 1928

Mesoderm

Front 1929

Tearing begins

Back 1929

20-104 days after birth -

Front 1930

The lacrimal gland is fully developed at

Back 1930

3-4 years of age

Front 1931

The cornea will not develop is

Back 1931

The optic cup is missing

Front 1932

Corneal stroma, Descemet’s corneal endothelium and Bowman’s layer are derived from

Back 1932

Neural crest mesenchyme

Front 1933

Corneal nerves enter the tissue at

Back 1933

3 months – approach the epithelium by 5 months

Front 1934

Arborization of corneal nerves occurs in the stroma

Back 1934

Between the 6th and 9th months

Front 1935

Corneal diameter at birth =

Back 1935

10mm

Front 1936

Adult corneal diameter =

Back 1936

12mm

Front 1937

At birth the corneal curvature is

Back 1937

Flatter than the adults

Front 1938

The sclera develops from

Back 1938

Mesoderm

Front 1939

The lamina cribrosa forms at the

Back 1939

6th month

Front 1940

The third wave of neural crest mesenchyme forms

Back 1940

Iris stroma

Front 1941

The anterior chamber is present by the

Back 1941

5th month

Front 1942

Iris stroma is derived from

Back 1942

Neural crest mesenchyme during the 4th month

Front 1943

The pupil is fully formed by

Back 1943

8 months

Front 1944

If pupillary atrophy fails you see a

Back 1944

Persistent pupillary membrane

Front 1945

The ciliary muscle comes from

Back 1945

Mesoderm

Front 1946

The epithelial layers of the ciliary body come from

Back 1946

Neural ectoderm of the optic cup

Front 1947

The lens zonules develop from

Back 1947

Tertiary vitreous (neural ectoderm) (neuroepithelium of CB)

Front 1948

Primitive lens fibers are found at

Back 1948

The exact center of the lens throughout life

Front 1949

The embryonic nucleus is made up of

Back 1949

Primary lens fibers – optically clear central area (months 1-3)

Front 1950

The fetal nucleus is made of

Back 1950

Secondary fibers (3-8 mo fetal life)

Front 1951

Infantile nucleus is laid down beginning in the

Back 1951

Last weeks of fetal development and continuing to puberty

Front 1952

Adult nucleus is formed after

Back 1952

Puberty

Front 1953

The choriocapillaris is complete by the

Back 1953

6th week of development

Front 1954

The choriocapillaris is supplied by the

Back 1954

Short post ciliary As which branch off the long post ciliary As

Front 1955

Bruch’s membrane is composed of an

Back 1955

Inner ectodermal layer and an outer mesodermal layer

Front 1956

The primary vitreous contains the

Back 1956

Hyaloid artery

Front 1957

The secondary vitreous is

Back 1957

Avascular

Front 1958

The secondary vitreous is derived from

Back 1958

Neural ectoderm

Front 1959

Stages of retinal development

Front 1960

Stage 1

Back 1960

Epithelial stage – retina develops from pseudostratified neuroepithelium

Front 1961

Stage 2

Back 1961

Two zones

Back 1962

Outer primitive zone – inner and outer neuroblastic layers

Back 1963

Inner marginal zone – initially contains so nuclei – cells from

Front 1964

Stage 3

Back 1964

inner neuroblastic layer migrate to it

Back 1965

Differentiation of the nervous elements – 1st ganglion cells then rod and cone photoreceptors

Front 1966

Muller cells extend from

Back 1966

The ELM to the ILM

Front 1967

Macular development is complete

Back 1967

3-4 months after birth

Front 1968

Retinal circulation during development involves

Front 1969

Primitive dorsal ophthalmic A

Back 1969

-branches from the internal carotid A

Back 1970

-annular vessel at rim of optic cup

Back 1971

-temporal long ciliary A – form the major arterial circle

Front 1972

Ventral ophthalmic A

Back 1972

-anterior ciliary A

Back 1973

-branches from the internal carotid A

Back 1974

-anastomoses with dorsal ophthalmic A

Back 1975

-develops into the nasal long ciliary A

Back 1976

-degenerates

Front 1977

The hyaloid A is a branch of the

Back 1977

Primitive dorsal ophthalmic A

Front 1978

As the hyaloid system atrophies the

Back 1978

Central retinal A is formed – also the central retinal V

Front 1979

The optic nerve is surrounded by

Back 1979

All three layers of meninges of the brain

Front 1980

The macula gives rise to

Back 1980

1/3 of the optic nerve fibers (10% of retinal space)

Front 1981

The intermediary tissue of Kuhnt is composed of

Back 1981

Neuroglia

Front 1983

Perfusion pressure of retinal vessels =

Back 1983

MAP – IOP

Front 1984

Alpha 1 adrenergic receptors cause

Back 1984

Constriction of blood vessels

Front 1985

Beta 2 adrenergic receptors cause

Back 1985

Dilation of blood vessels

Front 1986

There is NO parasympathetic innervation to

Back 1986

Blood vessels

Front 1988

Forced closure of eye lids =

Back 1988

Orbital portion of the Orbicularis oculi (CN VII)

Front 1989

Spontaneous blinking and voluntary winking =

Back 1989

Palpebral portion of the orbicularis oculi

Front 1990

The menace reflex is a

Back 1990

Cortical reflex – afferent pathway is through the ON

Front 1991

Touch reflex involves…

Back 1991

CN V afferents and CN VII efferents

Front 1992

Glands of Krause are located in the

Back 1992

Conjunctival fornices

Front 1993

Glands of Wolfring are located along the

Back 1993

Tarsal plate

Front 1994

Dehydration of the cornea is mainly done by the

Back 1994

Endothelium

Front 1996

Partial pressure of oxygen – eyes open

Back 1996

155 mmHg

Front 1997

Partial pressure of oxygen – eyes closed

Back 1997

55 mmHg

Front 1998

The epithelium regenerates completely every

Back 1998

7 days

Front 1999

Hassel Henle bodies are

Back 1999

Localized thickenings of Descemet’s membrane (aging change)

Front 2000

Systemic acidosis with

Back 2000

Lower IOP

Front 2002

Index of refraction of aqueous

Back 2002

1.336

Front 2003

The energy needed by the lens epithelium comes from

Back 2003

Anaerobic glycolysis (used for active transport)

Front 2004

Soluble lens crystallines found in the cortex include

Back 2004

Beta cyrstalin 55% - alpha crystalin 15% - gamma crystalin 15%

Front 2005

Insoluble proteins of the lens nucleus include

Back 2005

Albuminoid

Front 2006

The lens has high amounts of

Back 2006

Glutathione

Front 2007

Retinal is an

Back 2007

Unsaturated aldehyde formed by oxidation of retinol (an alcohol)

Front 2009

In the dark the chromophore is in the

Back 2009

11-cis-retinal form

Front 2010

When a photon of light is absorbed the retinal

Back 2010

Undergoes cis/trans isomerization to become all-trans retinal

Front 2011

The all trans retinal dissociates from the

Back 2011

Opsin

Front 2012

Light blocks the entry of

Back 2012

Na into photoreceptor outer segment = hyperpolarization

Front 2014

The Neurotransmitter b/t photoreceptors and bipolar and amacrine cells is

Back 2014

Glutamate

Front 2015

Horizontal and amacrine cells directly modify the

Back 2015

Rate of electrical firing in bipolar cells

Front 2016

The major excitatory transmitter for horizontal cells is

Back 2016

Glutamate

Front 2017

In inhibitor of horizontal and amacrine cells is

Back 2017

GABA

Front 2018

The major excitatory transmitter for amacrine cells is

Back 2018

AcH

Front 2019

An inhibitor of amacrine cells is

Back 2019

Glycine

Front 2020

In the dark

Back 2020

Neurotransmitters are constantly released

Front 2021

In the light

Back 2021

The amount of NT released decreases

Front 2022

Horizontal cell receptor fields result in a

Back 2022

Larger, slower hyperpolarization that photoreceptors do

Front 2023

The amacrine cell gives a

Back 2023

Short, transient or phasic depolarization with a change in light level over a wide receptive field

Front 2024

The principle of univarience refers to the fact that

Back 2024

No matter how much above threshold the wavelength of light hits the photoreceptor…it will produce the same exact response

Front 2025

Blue cones have a peak density

Back 2025

1o from the fovea

Front 2026

Parvocellular cell layers of the LGN (3,4,5 and 6) relay

Back 2026

Ganglion cells to the visual cortex

Front 2027

Magnocellular cell layers of the LGN (1 and 2) relay

Back 2027

From the primary visual cortex to the secondary visual cortex and on to the MT and MST region

Front 2028

Contralateral (crossed) ganglion cell axons end up in

Back 2028

Layers 1,4,6 of the LGN

Front 2029

Ipsilateral (uncrossed) ganglion cell axons end up in

Back 2029

Layers 2,3,5 of the LGN

Front 2030

Simple cells of the LGN have

Back 2030

Elongated center surround receptors that respond to extended stimuli – stimulus must have the proper orientation

Front 2031

The response of Special simple cells depends on

Back 2031

The length of the stimulus

Front 2032

Complex cells require the correct

Back 2032

Orientation and size stimulus

Front 2033

As long as the orientation is correct, a stimulus

Back 2033

Anywhere in the receptive field of a complex cell will cause a response

Front 2034

The primary input to the cortex form the LGN goes to

Back 2034

Layer 4

Front 2035

Collaterals of both the magno and parvo cells terminate

Back 2035

In layer 6 of the cortex

Front 2036

Intralaminar cells terminate in

Back 2036

Layers 2 and 3

Front 2037

Spiny stellate can pyramidal cortex cells are

Back 2037

Excitatory

Front 2038

Smooth stellate cells are

Back 2038

Inhibitory

Front 2039

Pyramidal cells have

Back 2039

Long, large axons and spiny type processes

Front 2040

Stellate cells have

Back 2040

Short axons and either smooth or spiny processes

Front 2041

Ocular dominance is the

Back 2041

Classification of the binocularity of a particular cell

Front 2042

Group 1 cells

Back 2042

Stimulated only by contralateral eye

Front 2043

Group 2 and 3 cells

Back 2043

Codominant – more by contralateral eye

Front 2044

Group 4 cells

Back 2044

Equal binocular response

Front 2045

Group 5 and 6 cells

Back 2045

Codominance – more by ipsilateral eye

Front 2046

Group 7 cells

Back 2046

Only to ipsilateral eye

Front 2048

Direct acting cholinergic agonists

Front 2049

Acetylcholine

Back 2049

Applied directly to iris during surgery – short duration

Front 2050

Methacholine

Back 2050

Selective activity in cardiovascular system

Front 2051

Carbachol

Back 2051

Used in POAG – more effective than pilocarpine

Front 2052

Pilocarpine

Back 2052

Direct stimulation on longitudinal muscle of CB, causes follicular conjunctivitis and accommodative spasm

Back 2053

** all may precipitate an asthmatic attack through bronchiolar constriction

Front 2054

Indirect acting cholinergic agonists (anticholinesterase)

Front 2055

Reversible Physostigmine

Back 2055

Ung used for POAG at night – antidote is atropine sulfate

Front 2056

Neostigmine

Back 2056

Antidote for tubocurarine – tx myasthemia gravis

Front 2057

Demecarium

Back 2057

Used topically only for POAG when pilo and carbachol are ineffective – used in management of accommodative esotropia

Front 2058

Edrophonium (Tensilon)

Back 2058

Drug of choice for the diagnosis of myasthenia gravis

Front 2059

Irreversible Diisopropyl fluorophosphate

Back 2059

aka isofluorophate – may develop iris cysts on the pupillary margin – topical phenylephrine can prevent the development of the cysts

Back 2060

may cause anterior subcapsular cataracts, reversible iris cysts

Front 2061

Echothiophate

Front 2062

Phthiriasis palpebrarum tx can be by lid scrubs with

Back 2062

Physostigmine, echothiophate and isofluorophate

Front 2063

Cholinergic antagonists

Back 2063

Blick AcH at muscarinic receptors

Front 2064

Atropine

Back 2064

Most potent belladonna alkaloid – antidote is physostigmine

Front 2065

Homatropine

Front 2066

Scopolamine

Front 2067

Cyclopentolate

Front 2068

Tropicamide

Front 2069

Adrenergic agaonists

Front 2070

Norepinephrine

Front 2071

Epinephrine

Back 2071

CME in aphakic px – initial drug of choice in POAG and ocular HTN – unstable when exposed to light and air – localized deposits with prolonged use

Front 2072

Phenylephrine

Back 2072

In OTC drops to “get the red out” – 1% soln dilates a postganglionis Horner’s syndrome

Front 2073

Hydroxyamphetamine

Back 2073

Inhibits reuptake of norepi – 1% soln fails to dilate a postgangionlic Horner’s but a preganglionic/central Horner’s dilates normally

Back 2074

Topical vasoconstrictor and decongestant

Front 2075

Ephedrine

Back 2075

Ocular decongestant and vasoconstrictor

Front 2076

Naphazoline

Back 2076

Ocular decongestant and vasoconstrictor

Front 2077

Tetrahydrozoline

Front 2078

Adrenergic antagonists / Beta blocking agents

Front 2079

Propranolol

Back 2079

Blocks both beta 1 and 2

Front 2080

Timolol

Back 2080

Blocks beta 1 and 2 – more potent than Propranolol – reduces aqueous formation without affecting outflow

Back 2081

** not used in px with respiratory problems

Front 2082

Adrenergic antagonists / Alpha blocking agents

Front 2083

Thymoxamine

Front 2084

Guanethidine

Front 2085

Pheniramine is a drug present in

Back 2085

Ocular antihistamine preparations

Front 2086

Inhibit cell wall synthesis

Front 2087

Penicillin

Back 2087

Inhibits transpeptidase

Front 2088

Cephalosporins

Back 2088

Used against G+ and penicillin resistant staph – NOT for G-

Front 2089

Cephamycins

Back 2089

‘’

Front 2090

Bacitracin

Back 2090

for G+ only available as an ung

Front 2091

Disrupt cell membrane permeability

Front 2092

Polymyxin B

Back 2092

For G– doesn’t penetrate an intact cornea – systemically is nephrotoxic – used for infx on lid and conj

Front 2093

Gramicidine

Back 2093

For G–

Front 2094

Sulfonamides function by inhibiting bacterial utilization

Back 2094

Of folic acid

Front 2095

Sulfonamides are used to treat

Back 2095

UTIs

Front 2096

Affect protein synthesis

Front 2097

Aminoglycosides

Back 2097

Used to tx aerobic GN bacilli – limited use for GP

Front 2098

Streptomycin

Back 2098

Bactericidal in high conc. – used to tx TB – may cause vestibular problems, deafness, optic neuritis and renal toxicity

Front 2099

Neomycin

Back 2099

Bactericidal – broad spectrum – used for topical ocular infx – too toxic when used systemically

Front 2100

Gentamicin

Back 2100

Bactericidal – broad spectrum – used to tx blepharitis – ototoxic and nephrotoxic – reduced activity when used with chloramphenicol

Back 2101

Better activity against P.aeruginosa – ototoxic and nephrotoxic

Front 2102

Tobramycin

Front 2103

Others

Back 2103

GN, GP and Chlamydia

Front 2104

Tetracyclines

Back 2104

Active against GPC – used in Staph blepharitis and hordeolum

Front 2105

Erythromycin

Back 2105

May cause apalstic anemia – used to tx typhoid fever and other Salmonella infx

Front 2106

Chloramphenicol

Front 2107

Antivirals that block absorption and penetration

Front 2108

Amantidine

Back 2108

Influenza A and Rubella

Front 2109

Idoxuridine

Back 2109

HSV keratitis – very toxic

Front 2110

Antivirals that block DNA polymerase

Front 2111

Cytarabine

Back 2111

HSV keratitis resistant to Idoxuridine

Front 2112

Vidarabine

Back 2112

HSV, VZV – neurotoxic and hamatoxic

Front 2113

Acyclovir

Back 2113

HSV 1, EBV, VZV – carcinogenic, neurotoxic, nephrotoxic

Front 2114

Antiviral that blocks DNA enzymes

Front 2115

Interferons

Back 2115

VZV,

Front 2116

Antivirals that block protein synthesis

Front 2117

Methisazone

Back 2117

Small pox (variola) virus, vaccinia

Front 2118

Rifampin

Back 2118

Topical for vaccinia lesions

Front 2119

Antifungals

Front 2120

Amphotericin B

Back 2120

Binds ergosterol – very toxic

Front 2121

Flucytosine

Back 2121

Alters fungal RNA – reversal bone barrow suppression

Front 2122

Ketoconazole

Back 2122

Inhibits synthesis of ergosterol

Front 2123

Griseofulvin

Back 2123

The major systemic drug for superficial fungal infx –

Front 2124

Nystatin

Back 2124

Topical – binds ergosterol altering membrane permeability

Front 2125

Natamycin

Back 2125

Topical – low toxicity

Front 2126

Fluorescein stains the

Back 2126

Corneal stroma

Front 2127

Rose Bengal stains

Back 2127

Dead devitalized epithelial cells

Front 2128

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs)

Back 2128

Inhibit HCO3 synthesis therefore decreasing aqueous production

Front 2129

Acetazolamide (Diamox)

Back 2129

Used in POAG when topicals do not work alone – causes blood dyscrasias – thrombocytopenia, agranulocyosis – aplastic anemia – may cause myopic shift – metallic taste in mouth – metabolic acidosis

Back 2130

Improved intraocular penetration – best tolerated CAI – less acidosis – better for px with lung and kidney problems

Back 2131

Causes more confusion and anorexia than other CAIs

Front 2132

Methazolamide (Naptazane)

Front 2133

Dichlorphenamide

Front 2134

CAIs are all

Back 2134

Sulfa based

Front 2135

Iopidine (apraclonidine) is an

Back 2135

Alpha 2 receptor agonist used to lower IOP

Front 2137

In method of limits testing the examiner

Back 2137

Manipulates the stimulus – either ascending or descending

Front 2138

In method of adjustment the subject

Back 2138

Manipulates the stimulus to match a standard

Front 2139

In method of constant stimuli the subject responds to

Back 2139

Independent measure – most accurate – a psychometric function is constructed – 50%response level – response independent

Front 2140

Scaling methods are used to determine the

Back 2140

Intensity of the sensation experienced by the subject

Front 2141

In direct scaling the subject

Back 2141

Assigns appropriate numbers to a series of stimuli according to the subjective impressions

Front 2142

Indirect scaling is broken down into

Back 2142

Comparative judgment and Categorical judgment

Front 2143

The four basic measurement scales are

Back 2143

1) nominal 2) ordinal 3) interval 4) ratio

Front 2144

Probability of correctly identifying a + = (sensitivity)

Back 2144

TP / (TP + FN) = hit rate

Front 2145

Probability of correctly identifying a – = (specificity)

Back 2145

TN / (TN + FP) =

Front 2147

Positive predictive value =

Back 2147

TP/ (TP +FP) probability that if labeled + is in fact +

Front 2148

Negative predictive value =

Back 2148

TN / (TN + FN) probability that if labeled – is in fact –

Front 2150

3 variables to describe color

Back 2150

1) hue 2) saturation 3) brightness

Front 2151

Hue is correlated with the

Back 2151

Wavelength of the light – photometric equivalent is dominant wavelength

Front 2152

Hue is best detected at

Back 2152

Blue green (490nm) and yellow red (590nm)

Front 2153

Saturation is a measures of the degree to which the

Back 2153

Stimulus is mixed with white – photometric equivalent is purity

Front 2154

Brightness is the

Back 2154

Luminosity of the color – photometric equivalent is luminance

Front 2155

Abney effect refers to

Back 2155

A change in hue associated with a change in purity (saturation)

Front 2156

Benzold Brucke effect refers to

Back 2156

A change in hue associated with a change in luminance

Back 2157

- stimuli below 500nm look more blue with increased intensity

Back 2158

- stimuli above 500nm look more yellow with increased intensity

Front 2159

Purdy effect is a

Back 2159

Change in saturation with a change in luminance

Front 2160

Best color discrimination for normals is

Back 2160

At 480-490nm (blue green) and 580nm (yellow)

Front 2161

For dicromats the best discrimination is at the

Back 2161

Neutral point

Front 2162

Protanopes

Back 2162

490nm

Front 2163

Deuteranopes

Back 2163

495nm

Front 2164

Tritanopes

Back 2164

570nm

Front 2165

Additive primary colors are

Back 2165

Red, green, blue (yellow is a psychological primary)

Front 2166

Complementary colors when mixed produce

Back 2166

White or gray -

Front 2167

Additive color mixtures are a

Back 2167

Superimposition of 2 or more lights to produce a color

Front 2168

Metameric colors are colors that

Back 2168

Match in appearance but are composed of different wavelength mixtures

Front 2169

Simultaneous color contrast refers to the change in

Back 2169

The appearance of an object with a change in the surround color

Front 2170

Successive color contrast refers to a

Back 2170

Negative afterimage being the color of the complementary color

Front 2171

Color contingent aftereffects are due to

Back 2171

Fatigue/ adaptation of he system

Front 2172

The McCollough effect refers to an adaptation to

Back 2172

Orientation and color

Front 2173

Color constancy refers to the fact that

Back 2173

Relative colors remain constant with changes in luminance

Front 2174

Tristimulus values are the

Back 2174

Boundaries of visible spectrum (380-760nm)

Front 2175

Munsell color system attempts to have the

Back 2175

Notation correspond to the sensory experience

Front 2176

Munsell hues are located around a circle numbered

Back 2176

1-10 – there are 10 major hues and 100 total hues

Front 2177

The Munsell “value” refers to

Back 2177

Lightness and is along the vertical axis

Front 2178

The Munsell “chroma” refers to

Back 2178

Whiteness and is represented by a horizontal line from the center of the circle – scale form 0 to a maximum

Front 2179

The Munsell notation is given in

Back 2179

H/V/C hue/value/chroma

Front 2180

MacAdams ellipses are perceptual areas in the CIE diagram where

Back 2180

All colors will appear the same – even if physically different

Front 2181

Cones have the greatest sensitivity at

Back 2181

555nm (green/yellow)

Front 2182

Rods have the greatest sensitivity at

Back 2182

505nm (blue/green)

Front 2183

Anomalous trichromats

Back 2183

Require 3 primary colors to create a match

Front 2184

Deuteranomaly

Back 2184

Most common of all deficiencies – requires more green to match color mixtures – M cones are mutated (535nm)

Front 2185

Protanomaly

Back 2185

Requires more red to match color mixtures – L cone defective

Front 2186

Tritanomaly

Back 2186

Requires more blue to match color mixtures – S cone defective

Front 2187

Dichromats

Back 2187

Require 2 primary colors to make a match

Front 2188

Protanope

Back 2188

Missing erythrolabe – confuse red with any other color and B-G with white – best color discrimination for 492nm (blue green) – cannot discriminate at long wavelengths

Back 2189

Missing chlorolabe – confuse green with white – nearly normal photopic spectral sensitivity – discriminate best for 498nm (greener blue green)

Front 2190

Deuteranope

Back 2190

Missing cyanolabe – confuse yellow with white – normal photopic spectral sensitivity – best discrimination for 570nm (yellow green)

Front 2192

Tritanope

Front 2193

Rayleigh equation is the ratio of

Back 2193

Red to green needed to match yellow in an anomaloscope

Front 2194

Protanomalous trichromats will have one ratio but will

Back 2194

Require more red than normal

Front 2195

Deuteranomalous trihromats will have one ratio but

Back 2195

Require more green than normal

Front 2196

Protanopia causes a px to require

Back 2196

Less luminance of yellow to match brightness of pure red

Front 2197

Deuteranopia requires equal

Back 2197

Luminance to match yellow with pure red or green

Front 2198

Kollner’s rule

Back 2198

Applies to acquired color vision defects

Front 2199

Diseases of retina and ocular media

Back 2199

Blue yellow defect

Front 2200

Diseases of the ON and visual pathway

Back 2200

Red green defects

Front 2201

Brightness can be predicted by

Back 2201

The activity of non opponent cells

Front 2202

Hue can be predicted by

Back 2202

The activity of opponent cells

Front 2203

Saturation can be predicted by

Back 2203

The ratio of opponent to non opponent cells

Front 2204

Oculocentric localization references objects in space to

Back 2204

The entrance pupil of the observing eye (monocular)

Front 2205

Every point on the retina has a visual direction

Back 2205

Associated with it = local sign

Front 2206

Primary visual direction is the

Back 2206

Local sign associated with the fovea

Front 2207

Secondary visual directions are associated with

Back 2207

All other retinal elements – are relative to the primary visual dir

Front 2208

Oculocentric visual direction refers to the fact that

Back 2208

Secondary visual direction is always relative to the primary visual direction

Front 2209

In egocentric localization direction is in reference to

Back 2209

The cyclopean eye – occurs at the cortical level – requires the input of two oculocentric locatozations – binocular

Front 2210

Around a horoptor, binocular disparity is

Back 2210

Zero

Front 2211

Geometric effect occurs with magnification in the

Back 2211

Horizontal meridian (X90) – floor slants down and toward magnified eye – facing wall is skewed away from eye

Front 2212

Induced effect occurs with magnification in the

Back 2212

Vertical meridian (X180) – floor slants up and away from the magnified eye – facing wall is skewed toward the eye

Front 2213

Visually guided behavior is controlled by the

Back 2213

Superior colliculus

Front 2214

Minimum visual acuity determines the

Back 2214

Presence or absence of a target – rod function

Front 2215

Resolution refers to a

Back 2215

Response to separation between elements of a pattern

Front 2216

Recognition requires

Back 2216

Naming of the test object or a critical aspect of it

Front 2217

Contrast =

Back 2217

(Target luminance – background) / background luminance

Front 2218

Contrast =

Back 2218

(Lmax- Lmin) / (Lmax + Lmin)

Front 2219

In an Ames room the

Back 2219

Perceived distance is constant but retinal image size varies

Front 2220

Mueller Lyer illusion refers to

Back 2220

Lines of same length appearing unequal due to arrow heads

Front 2222

Weber’s law states that

Back 2222

The higher the background, the higher the change in stimulus necessary for the detection of an absolute difference

Front 2223

DeVries-Rose Law predicts the

Back 2223

Ideal threshold of a stimulus upon a background

Front 2224

Ricco’s law deals with

Back 2224

Spatial summation – better in scotopic system

Front 2225

Block’s law deals with

Back 2225

Temporal summation – better in photopic system

Front 2226

The critical duration for temporal summation is

Back 2226

100msec for rods; 10-15msec for cones

Front 2227

Korte’s law summarizes the optimum stimulus

Back 2227

For apparent motion

Front 2228

Alpha motion is a type of apparent motion where there

Back 2228

Is apparent expansion and ceontration – 2nd target is larger

Front 2229

Gamma motion is a type of apparent motion where

Back 2229

The second target is brighter

Front 2230

Sigma motion occurs when the target is constantly on

Back 2230

The fovea

Front 2231

Stroboscopic movement (Phi phenomena) is where the

Back 2231

Presentation of stationary stimuli gives rise to apparent motion

Front 2232

Retrozonular portion

Back 2232

Posterior to zonules – anterior to anterior hyloid of vitreous

Front 2233

The Pars plana (orbicularis ciliaris )portion of the CB

Back 2233

Runs from ora to ciliary processes -

Front 2234

The Pars plana produces

Back 2234

MPS for vitreous

Front 2235

The Pars plicata (corona ciliaris) produces

Back 2235

Aqueous humor

Front 2236

Layers of the CB include

Front 2237

Unpigmented epithelium

Back 2237

Most internal layer – one cell thick – continuous anteriorly with the pigmented epithelium of iris and posteriorly with the nervous retina at ora

Back 2238

Continuous anteriorly with unpigmented epithelium of iris and posteriorly with RPE at ora – thickens with age

Front 2239

pigmented epithelium

Back 2239

Inner connective tissue layer – loose tissue external to the basement membrane – collagen, blood vessels, nerves, fibroblasts and mast cells – contains ciliary muscle

Front 2240

stroma

Back 2240

Most external layer – lies next to lamina fusca of sclera – fibroblasts and melanocytes

Front 2241

supraciliaris

Front 2242

The ciliary stroma becomes choroids at the

Back 2242

Ora serrata

Front 2243

At ora the supraciliaris of the CB becomes the

Back 2243

Suprachoroid

Front 2244

At ora the external pigmented epithelium of CB

Back 2244

Becomes pigmented epithelium of the retina

Front 2245

The unpigmented epithelium of CB becomes

Back 2245

Nervous retina

Front 2246

Blood supply to the CB includes

Back 2246

2 long post ciliary As and 7 anterior ciliary As

Front 2247

3 portions of the ciliary muscle

Front 2248

Longitudinal portion

Back 2248

(aka Brucke’s muscle, Meridional fibers) – origin at SS – insertion into choroid (epichoroidal muscle stars) – moves choroid anteriorly

Back 2249

(oblique fibers) – origin SS – insertion at ciliary processes and Pars Plana – pulls pars plana anteriorly

Front 2250

Radial portion

Back 2250

(aka Mueller’s muscle, Ciliary sphincter) – origin SS – insertion into anterior part of ciliary processes – constricts lens aperture

Front 2251

Circular portion

Front 2252

Zonules originate in the

Back 2252

Pars plana

Front 2253

The anterior Y suture is

Back 2253

Erect

Front 2254

The posterior Y suture is

Back 2254

Inverted

Front 2255

Y sutures are found in what area of the lens

Back 2255

Fetal nucleus

Front 2256

Lens epithelium is present at the

Back 2256

Equator and anteriorly under the capsule – NOT posteriorly

Front 2257

How many lens fibers are there in an adult lens?

Back 2257

2000

Front 2258

Large blood vessels in the stroma of the choroid are

Back 2258

Haller’s vessels

Front 2259

Small blood vessels in the stroma of the choroid are

Back 2259

Sattler’s vessels

Front 2260

Anterior ½ of choroid is supplied by

Back 2260

2 long posterior ciliary As to major arterial circle of the iris

Front 2261

Posterior ½ of choroid is supplied by

Back 2261

Many short posterior clilary As – form the circle of Zin-Haller

Front 2262

The choroid is mainly drained by the

Back 2262

4 vortex veins

Front 2263

Anterior ciliary veins drain the

Back 2263

Anterior ½ of the choroid via the limbal plexus

Front 2264

Pial veins drain the

Back 2264

Optic nerve meninges and part of the posterior choroid

Front 2265

Bruch’s membrane is the innermost layer of the choroid

Back 2265

Adjacent to the RPE

Front 2266

Layers of Bruch’s membrane

Front 2267

Basement membrane of RPE

Back 2267

Actually a retinal layer (0.3um)

Front 2268

Inner collagenous zone

Back 2268

No nerves no cells (1.5um)

Front 2269

Elastic layer

Back 2269

Backbone of Bruch’s membrane (0.8um)

Front 2270

Outer collagenous zone

Back 2270

Fibroblasts, no nerves (0.7um)

Front 2271

Basement membrane of choriocapillaris

Back 2271

Outermost layer (0.14um)

Front 2272

The volume of the vitreous is

Back 2272

4ml

Front 2273

Vitreous attachments

Front 2274

Vitreous base

Back 2274

Firmest (2mm forward on CB and 4mm onto retina)

Front 2275

Peripapillary attachment

Back 2275

Loosens with age

Front 2276

Macular attachment

Back 2276

4mm centered around fovea (Maxwell’s spot)

Front 2277

Haloideocapsulary ligament

Back 2277

Weigner’s or pectinate ligament – around post lens surface

Front 2278

The area of Martegiani is the area around the

Back 2278

ON where Cloquet’s canal flares out

Front 2279

Cloquet’s canal is a remnant of

Back 2279

Primary vitreous (hyaloid artery)

Front 2280

Layers of the retina

Front 2281

RPE

Back 2281

Uniform single layer of hexagonal shaped cells – more pigment in the macular region

Front 2282

Photoreceptors

Back 2282

Thin, fenestrated layer

Front 2283

External limiting membrane

Back 2283

Cell bodies of rods and cones – nuclei and cytoplasm

Front 2284

Outer nuclear layer

Back 2284

Photoreceptor axons synapse with bipolar and horizontal cells – Muller cells fill in and have a nutritive function

Front 2285

Outer plexiform layer

Back 2285

Cell bodies of horizontal, bipolar, Muller and amacrine cells

Front 2286

Inner nuclear layer

Back 2286

Synapses between bipolar cells (1st order neuron) , amacrine cells and ganglion cells (2nd order neuron)

Front 2287

Inner plexiform layer

Back 2287

Cell bodies of ganglion cells

Front 2288

Ganglion cell layer

Back 2288

Axons of ganglion cells

Front 2289

Nerve fiber layer

Back 2289

Lines the vitreous face of the retina

Front 2290

Internal limiting membrane

Front 2291

In cases of retinal detachment the RPE…

Back 2291

Stays connected to Bruch’s membrane

Front 2292

The RPE provides photoreceptors with

Back 2292

Vitamin A, glucose and oxygen

Front 2293

Horizontal cells make connections between

Back 2293

Photoreceptors and other horizontal cells

Front 2294

Amacrine cells make connections between

Back 2294

Different ganglion cells

Front 2295

Photoreceptor layers receive blood from the

Back 2295

Choroid (outer nuclear and plexiform)

Front 2296

Inner retinal layers are supplied by the

Back 2296

Central retinal artery

Front 2297

Area centralis is located

Back 2297

4mm temporal and 0.08mm inferior to the optic disc

Front 2298

The perifovea is

Back 2298

1.5mm in width and 2.25mm from the fovea

Front 2299

The largest accumulation of nerve cells in the retina is

Back 2299

In the parafovea (2.1mm in width) around the fovea

Front 2300

The parafoveal layer has a thick

Back 2300

Outer plexiform layer (layer of Henle)

Front 2301

The fovea is

Back 2301

1.5mm in diameter – receptor layer has CONES ONLY

Front 2302

The foveola is

Back 2302

0.35mm across and contains only photoreceptors and glial cells

Front 2303

Ora serrata is located

Back 2303

8.5 mm from limbus…6mm from equator…25mm from ONH

Front 2304

measures

Back 2304

2.1mm temporally…0.8mm nasally

Front 2305

The prelaminar portion of the optic nerve is protected by

Back 2305

Astrocytes that make up the intermediary tissue of Kuhnt, glial mantle of Fuchs or Graefe and the border tissue of Jacoby

Front 2306

The inner limiting membrane of Elschnig is where

Back 2306

The glial layer thickens over the ONH

Front 2307

The Meniscus of Kuhnt is where

Back 2307

Elschnig fills the optic cup

Front 2308

Nasal macular fibers cross at the

Back 2308

Center of the optic chiasm

Front 2309

The fist contact of the optic tract with the brain is the

Back 2309

Cerebral pedulcles

Front 2310

The optic tract divides sending the lateral part to the

Back 2310

LGN and the medial part to the superior colliculus and pretectum

Front 2311

Superior retina sends info to the

Back 2311

Medial part of the LGN

Front 2312

Interior retina sends info to the

Back 2312

Lateral part of the LGN

Front 2313

The cuneus (above calcarine fissure) maps the

Back 2313

Lower visual field (superior retina)

Front 2314

The lingual gyrus (below the calcarine fissure) maps

Back 2314

Superior visual field (inferior retina)

Front 2315

Layers 1,4,6 of the LGN are

Back 2315

Contralateral, nasal hemiretina, temporal crescent

Front 2316

Layer 2,3,5 of the LGN are

Back 2316

Ipsilateral, temporal hemiretina

Front 2317

Layer 4C alpha of the visual cortex has the

Back 2317

Ocular dominance columns

Front 2319

All ocular tissues develop from 3 embryological layers

Back 2319

Neural ectoderm, surface ectoderm and mesenchyme

Front 2320

Retinal layers derive from

Back 2320

Neural ectoderm

Front 2321

The optic cup is formed by the invagination of

Back 2321

Neural ectoderm

Front 2322

The innermost layer of the optic cup forms the

Back 2322

Inner and outer neuroblastic layers

Front 2323

The inner neuroblastic layer forms the

Back 2323

Ganglion cells, amacrine cells and Muller cells

Front 2324

Outer neuroblastic layer forms the

Back 2324

Bipolar cells, photoreceptors and horizontal cells

Front 2325

The outermost layer of the optic cup becomes the

Back 2325

RPE

Front 2326

The anterior part of the optic cup forms the

Back 2326

Epithelium of the ciliary body and posterior surface of iris

Front 2327

The inner (posterior) pigmented layer of the iris is

Back 2327

Continuous with the non pigmented layer of the CB epithelium

Front 2328

Outer lightly pigmented layer of iris is continuous with

Back 2328

The pigmented layer of the CB epithelium

Front 2329

The iris dilator and sphincter develop from the

Back 2329

Outer lightly pigmented layer of iris epithelium (neural ectoderm)

Front 2330

Surface ectoderm is induced to form the lens placode

Back 2330

By close association with the optic vesicle (neural ectoderm)

Front 2331

After the lens sack detaches the surface ectoderm

Back 2331

Continues on to form the eye lids

Front 2332

Surface ectoderm also forms the accessory glands of

Back 2332

Krause, Zeiss, Wolfring, Moll and meibomian glands

Front 2333

The lacrimal glands and drainage system also come

Back 2333

From the surface ectoderm

Front 2335

Anything that tears touch comes from the

Back 2335

Surface ectoderm

Front 2337

Mesenchyme originates from both

Back 2337

Neural crest and mesoderm

Front 2338

The hyaloid A and V are formed when

Back 2338

Mesenchyme enters through the embryonic/choroidal fissure

Front 2339

Corneal epithelium and primary stroma are formed by

Back 2339

Surface ectoderm

Front 2340

Corneal endothelium is formed by

Back 2340

The first wave of neural crest mesenchyme (7th wk)

Front 2341

The future corneal stroma is formed by the

Back 2341

Second wave of neural crest mesenchyme (8th wk)

Front 2342

Ciliary muscles are formed from

Back 2342

Mesenchyme

Front 2343

Vascular choroid and tough sclera are formed from

Back 2343

Mesenchyme

Front 2344

The EOMs are derived from

Back 2344

Mesenchyme

Front 2345

The bones of the orbit are formed from

Back 2345

Mesenchyme

Front 2346

Most bone sutures in the orbit close at

Back 2346

6-7 months

Front 2347

The sphenoid bond suture closes at the end of

Back 2347

The first year

Front 2348

SR, SO and levator develop from the

Back 2348

Superior mesoderm condensation

Front 2349

IR and IO develop from the

Back 2349

Inferior mesoderm condensation

Front 2350

MR and LR develop from

Back 2350

Both condensations

Front 2351

CN III, IV and VI evolve in the

Back 2351

Cranial portion of the neural tube (III 4th wk)(IV 7th wk)(all 8th wk)

Front 2352

The skin lids, glands and conjunctiva develop from

Back 2352

Surface ectoderm

Front 2353

The tarsal plate, orbicularis oculi, levator aponeurosis and smooth muscle of the eye lid are from

Back 2353

Mesoderm

Front 2354

Tearing begins

Back 2354

20-104 days after birth -

Front 2355

The lacrimal gland is fully developed at

Back 2355

3-4 years of age

Front 2356

The cornea will not develop is

Back 2356

The optic cup is missing

Front 2357

Corneal stroma, Descemet’s corneal endothelium and Bowman’s layer are derived from

Back 2357

Neural crest mesenchyme

Front 2358

Corneal nerves enter the tissue at

Back 2358

3 months – approach the epithelium by 5 months

Front 2359

Arborization of corneal nerves occurs in the stroma

Back 2359

Between the 6th and 9th months

Front 2360

Corneal diameter at birth =

Back 2360

10mm

Front 2361

Adult corneal diameter =

Back 2361

12mm

Front 2362

At birth the corneal curvature is

Back 2362

Flatter than the adults

Front 2363

The sclera develops from

Back 2363

Mesoderm

Front 2364

The lamina cribrosa forms at the

Back 2364

6th month

Front 2365

The third wave of neural crest mesenchyme forms

Back 2365

Iris stroma

Front 2366

The anterior chamber is present by the

Back 2366

5th month

Front 2367

Iris stroma is derived from

Back 2367

Neural crest mesenchyme during the 4th month

Front 2368

The pupil is fully formed by

Back 2368

8 months

Front 2369

If pupillary atrophy fails you see a

Back 2369

Persistent pupillary membrane

Front 2370

The ciliary muscle comes from

Back 2370

Mesoderm

Front 2371

The epithelial layers of the ciliary body come from

Back 2371

Neural ectoderm of the optic cup

Front 2372

The lens zonules develop from

Back 2372

Tertiary vitreous (neural ectoderm) (neuroepithelium of CB)

Front 2373

Primitive lens fibers are found at

Back 2373

The exact center of the lens throughout life

Front 2374

The embryonic nucleus is made up of

Back 2374

Primary lens fibers – optically clear central area (months 1-3)

Front 2375

The fetal nucleus is made of

Back 2375

Secondary fibers (3-8 mo fetal life)

Front 2376

Infantile nucleus is laid down beginning in the

Back 2376

Last weeks of fetal development and continuing to puberty

Front 2377

Adult nucleus is formed after

Back 2377

Puberty

Front 2378

The choriocapillaris is complete by the

Back 2378

6th week of development

Front 2379

The choriocapillaris is supplied by the

Back 2379

Short post ciliary As which branch off the long post ciliary As

Front 2380

Bruch’s membrane is composed of an

Back 2380

Inner ectodermal layer and an outer mesodermal layer

Front 2381

The primary vitreous contains the

Back 2381

Hyaloid artery

Front 2382

The secondary vitreous is

Back 2382

Avascular

Front 2383

The secondary vitreous is derived from

Back 2383

Neural ectoderm

Front 2384

Stages of retinal development

Front 2385

Stage 1

Back 2385

Epithelial stage – retina develops from pseudostratified neuroepithelium

Front 2386

Stage 2

Back 2386

Two zones

Back 2387

Outer primitive zone – inner and outer neuroblastic layers

Back 2388

Inner marginal zone – initially contains so nuclei – cells from

Front 2389

Stage 3

Back 2389

inner neuroblastic layer migrate to it

Back 2390

Differentiation of the nervous elements – 1st ganglion cells then rod and cone photoreceptors

Front 2391

Muller cells extend from

Back 2391

The ELM to the ILM

Front 2392

Macular development is complete

Back 2392

3-4 months after birth

Front 2393

Retinal circulation during development involves

Front 2394

Primitive dorsal ophthalmic A

Back 2394

-branches from the internal carotid A

Back 2395

-annular vessel at rim of optic cup

Back 2396

-temporal long ciliary A – form the major arterial circle

Front 2397

Ventral ophthalmic A

Back 2397

-anterior ciliary A

Back 2398

-branches from the internal carotid A

Back 2399

-anastomoses with dorsal ophthalmic A

Back 2400

-develops into the nasal long ciliary A

Back 2401

-degenerates

Front 2402

The hyaloid A is a branch of the

Back 2402

Primitive dorsal ophthalmic A

Front 2403

As the hyaloid system atrophies the

Back 2403

Central retinal A is formed – also the central retinal V

Front 2404

The optic nerve is surrounded by

Back 2404

All three layers of meninges of the brain

Front 2405

The macula gives rise to

Back 2405

1/3 of the optic nerve fibers (10% of retinal space)

Front 2406

The intermediary tissue of Kuhnt is composed of

Back 2406

Neuroglia

Front 2408

Perfusion pressure of retinal vessels =

Back 2408

MAP – IOP

Front 2409

Alpha 1 adrenergic receptors cause

Back 2409

Constriction of blood vessels

Front 2410

Beta 2 adrenergic receptors cause

Back 2410

Dilation of blood vessels

Front 2411

There is NO parasympathetic innervation to

Back 2411

Blood vessels

Front 2413

Forced closure of eye lids =

Back 2413

Orbital portion of the Orbicularis oculi (CN VII)

Front 2414

Spontaneous blinking and voluntary winking =

Back 2414

Palpebral portion of the orbicularis oculi

Front 2415

The menace reflex is a

Back 2415

Cortical reflex – afferent pathway is through the ON

Front 2416

Touch reflex involves…

Back 2416

CN V afferents and CN VII efferents

Front 2417

Glands of Krause are located in the

Back 2417

Conjunctival fornices

Front 2418

Glands of Wolfring are located along the

Back 2418

Tarsal plate

Front 2419

Dehydration of the cornea is mainly done by the

Back 2419

Endothelium

Front 2421

Partial pressure of oxygen – eyes open

Back 2421

155 mmHg

Front 2422

Partial pressure of oxygen – eyes closed

Back 2422

55 mmHg

Front 2423

The epithelium regenerates completely every

Back 2423

7 days

Front 2424

Hassel Henle bodies are

Back 2424

Localized thickenings of Descemet’s membrane (aging change)

Front 2425

Systemic acidosis with

Back 2425

Lower IOP

Front 2427

Index of refraction of aqueous

Back 2427

1.336

Front 2428

The energy needed by the lens epithelium comes from

Back 2428

Anaerobic glycolysis (used for active transport)

Front 2429

Soluble lens crystallines found in the cortex include

Back 2429

Beta cyrstalin 55% - alpha crystalin 15% - gamma crystalin 15%

Front 2430

Insoluble proteins of the lens nucleus include

Back 2430

Albuminoid

Front 2431

The lens has high amounts of

Back 2431

Glutathione

Front 2432

Retinal is an

Back 2432

Unsaturated aldehyde formed by oxidation of retinol (an alcohol)

Front 2434

In the dark the chromophore is in the

Back 2434

11-cis-retinal form

Front 2435

When a photon of light is absorbed the retinal

Back 2435

Undergoes cis/trans isomerization to become all-trans retinal

Front 2436

The all trans retinal dissociates from the

Back 2436

Opsin

Front 2437

Light blocks the entry of

Back 2437

Na into photoreceptor outer segment = hyperpolarization

Front 2439

The Neurotransmitter b/t photoreceptors and bipolar and amacrine cells is

Back 2439

Glutamate

Front 2440

Horizontal and amacrine cells directly modify the

Back 2440

Rate of electrical firing in bipolar cells

Front 2441

The major excitatory transmitter for horizontal cells is

Back 2441

Glutamate

Front 2442

In inhibitor of horizontal and amacrine cells is

Back 2442

GABA

Front 2443

The major excitatory transmitter for amacrine cells is

Back 2443

AcH

Front 2444

An inhibitor of amacrine cells is

Back 2444

Glycine

Front 2445

In the dark

Back 2445

Neurotransmitters are constantly released

Front 2446

In the light

Back 2446

The amount of NT released decreases

Front 2447

Horizontal cell receptor fields result in a

Back 2447

Larger, slower hyperpolarization that photoreceptors do

Front 2448

The amacrine cell gives a

Back 2448

Short, transient or phasic depolarization with a change in light level over a wide receptive field

Front 2449

The principle of univarience refers to the fact that

Back 2449

No matter how much above threshold the wavelength of light hits the photoreceptor…it will produce the same exact response

Front 2450

Blue cones have a peak density

Back 2450

1o from the fovea

Front 2451

Parvocellular cell layers of the LGN (3,4,5 and 6) relay

Back 2451

Ganglion cells to the visual cortex

Front 2452

Magnocellular cell layers of the LGN (1 and 2) relay

Back 2452

From the primary visual cortex to the secondary visual cortex and on to the MT and MST region

Front 2453

Contralateral (crossed) ganglion cell axons end up in

Back 2453

Layers 1,4,6 of the LGN

Front 2454

Ipsilateral (uncrossed) ganglion cell axons end up in

Back 2454

Layers 2,3,5 of the LGN

Front 2455

Simple cells of the LGN have

Back 2455

Elongated center surround receptors that respond to extended stimuli – stimulus must have the proper orientation

Front 2456

The response of Special simple cells depends on

Back 2456

The length of the stimulus

Front 2457

Complex cells require the correct

Back 2457

Orientation and size stimulus

Front 2458

As long as the orientation is correct, a stimulus

Back 2458

Anywhere in the receptive field of a complex cell will cause a response

Front 2459

The primary input to the cortex form the LGN goes to

Back 2459

Layer 4

Front 2460

Collaterals of both the magno and parvo cells terminate

Back 2460

In layer 6 of the cortex

Front 2461

Intralaminar cells terminate in

Back 2461

Layers 2 and 3

Front 2462

Spiny stellate can pyramidal cortex cells are

Back 2462

Excitatory

Front 2463

Smooth stellate cells are

Back 2463

Inhibitory

Front 2464

Pyramidal cells have

Back 2464

Long, large axons and spiny type processes

Front 2465

Stellate cells have

Back 2465

Short axons and either smooth or spiny processes

Front 2466

Ocular dominance is the

Back 2466

Classification of the binocularity of a particular cell

Front 2467

Group 1 cells

Back 2467

Stimulated only by contralateral eye

Front 2468

Group 2 and 3 cells

Back 2468

Codominant – more by contralateral eye

Front 2469

Group 4 cells

Back 2469

Equal binocular response

Front 2470

Group 5 and 6 cells

Back 2470

Codominance – more by ipsilateral eye

Front 2471

Group 7 cells

Back 2471

Only to ipsilateral eye

Front 2473

Direct acting cholinergic agonists

Front 2474

Acetylcholine

Back 2474

Applied directly to iris during surgery – short duration

Front 2475

Methacholine

Back 2475

Selective activity in cardiovascular system

Front 2476

Carbachol

Back 2476

Used in POAG – more effective than pilocarpine

Front 2477

Pilocarpine

Back 2477

Direct stimulation on longitudinal muscle of CB, causes follicular conjunctivitis and accommodative spasm

Back 2478

** all may precipitate an asthmatic attack through bronchiolar constriction

Front 2479

Indirect acting cholinergic agonists (anticholinesterase)

Front 2480

Reversible Physostigmine

Back 2480

Ung used for POAG at night – antidote is atropine sulfate

Front 2481

Neostigmine

Back 2481

Antidote for tubocurarine – tx myasthemia gravis

Front 2482

Demecarium

Back 2482

Used topically only for POAG when pilo and carbachol are ineffective – used in management of accommodative esotropia

Front 2483

Edrophonium (Tensilon)

Back 2483

Drug of choice for the diagnosis of myasthenia gravis

Front 2484

Irreversible Diisopropyl fluorophosphate

Back 2484

aka isofluorophate – may develop iris cysts on the pupillary margin – topical phenylephrine can prevent the development of the cysts

Back 2485

may cause anterior subcapsular cataracts, reversible iris cysts

Front 2486

Echothiophate

Front 2487

Phthiriasis palpebrarum tx can be by lid scrubs with

Back 2487

Physostigmine, echothiophate and isofluorophate

Front 2488

Cholinergic antagonists

Back 2488

Blick AcH at muscarinic receptors

Front 2489

Atropine

Back 2489

Most potent belladonna alkaloid – antidote is physostigmine

Front 2490

Homatropine

Front 2491

Scopolamine

Front 2492

Cyclopentolate

Front 2493

Tropicamide

Front 2494

Adrenergic agaonists

Front 2495

Norepinephrine

Front 2496

Epinephrine

Back 2496

CME in aphakic px – initial drug of choice in POAG and ocular HTN – unstable when exposed to light and air – localized deposits with prolonged use

Front 2497

Phenylephrine

Back 2497

In OTC drops to “get the red out” – 1% soln dilates a postganglionis Horner’s syndrome

Front 2498

Hydroxyamphetamine

Back 2498

Inhibits reuptake of norepi – 1% soln fails to dilate a postgangionlic Horner’s but a preganglionic/central Horner’s dilates normally

Back 2499

Topical vasoconstrictor and decongestant

Front 2500

Ephedrine

Back 2500

Ocular decongestant and vasoconstrictor