Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What are the meanings of the following anatomical terms?
Medial Lateral Median Caudal Rostral |
Medial-towards midline
Lateral-away from midline Median- right down the midline Caudal -another term for posterior Rostral-another term for anterior |
|
|
In the anterior view, are palms facing forward or facing behind?
|
Facing forward
|
|
|
What is the cephalic direction?
|
Directed toward or situated on head
|
|
|
The CNS, brain, brainstem and spinal cord are all _____ _____ derivatives.
|
Neural Tube
|
|
|
What is ganglia?
|
A collection of nerve cells outside the CNS.
|
|
|
The PNS is mostly ______ _______ derivatives.
|
Neural crest
|
|
|
What are plexuses?
|
Collection of peripheral nerves and fibers
|
|
|
The PNS has both somatic and visceral innervation. Somatic innervation is to and from the ____ _____ of the body. The somatic sensory gives _____ general sensation. The somatic motor neuron is one motor neuron with _______ innervation to striated muscles of the body.
|
Main parts
Conscious Voluntary Way to remember, "somebody(somatic) better get him" To beat him up will require somatic motors and he will feel the beat down from the somatic sensory. |
|
|
The PNS has both somatic and visceral innervation. Visceral innervation is to and from _______, __________, and _______. The visceral sensory gets sensation from vascular, chemo- and other organ receptors. Unlike the somatic sensory, sensory isn't conscious. The visceral motor is two motor neuron innervated to smooth, cardiac muscles and glands and gives ________ movements.
|
Vessels
Organs Glands Involuntary |
|
|
What is the visceromotor portion of the PNS: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic components?
|
The ANS
|
|
|
What is efferent, sensory or motor?
|
Motor
|
|
|
What connects the PNS to the brain and brainstem?
|
Cranial Nerves
|
|
|
What connects the PNS to the spinal cord?
|
Spinal Nerves
|
|
|
The neural crest gives rise to?
|
spinal ganglia, autonomic ganglia, and myelin of peripheral nerves (PNS).
|
|
|
On day 6 of spinal cord and PNS development, the neuroepithelial cells (which are the efferent motor), are present. These neuroepithelial cells can differentiate into what?
|
Neuroepithelial cells differentiate into different types of neurons (multipolar, unipolar, and bipolar).
|
|
|
At the 9 week mark of spinal cord and PNS development, two horns have formed, the ventral and the dorsal. What contains sensory neurons and what contains motor neurons?
|
Motor neurons are in the Ventral
Dorsal has the sensory neurons |
|
|
At the 6 week mark of spinal cord and PNS development, the neural crest cells have differentiated into ______ ________ in spinal ganglion
|
Afferent neuroblasts
Primary cells in brain conduction sensory information from periphery into spinal cord |
|
|
The mutipolar neurons has one axon but multiple dendritic sites that synapse on _____ neurons and _________ ganglion neurons
|
Motor
Sympathetic |
|
|
Many ____ _______ cells migrate to become neurons of spinal nerve
ganglia, autonomic ganglia (sympathetic and parasympathetic), and "chromaffinergic" (epinephrine-secreting) cells of the adrenal (suprarenal) glands |
Neural Crest
|
|
|
When the CNS and spinal cord are developing, the ventral groups contain neuroepithelial cells differentiate into multipolar, unipolar and bipolar. it should be noted that the more ventral region is the ______ region.
|
Motor
Bad question but eh |
|
|
_______ _______ cells differentiate into Schwann cells, Multipolar neuron(sympathetic ganglion cell) neurons, Suprarenal medualla (chromattin cells), Unipolar neurons (spinal ganglion cells), spinal ganglion, melanocyes and the ganglion of the sympathetic trunk.
|
Neural Crest
|
|
|
The segmenting of the spinal sensory nerve fibers are the basis for _______ _______. Somatosensory and viscerosensory (organ)
|
Body mapping
|
|
|
What is the dorsal root ganglion?
|
These are the sensory nerve axons collectively entering the spinal cord at each segmental level as dorsal roots
|
|
|
Where does one find the Autonomic Nervous System?
|
In the Lateral Horns
|
|
|
What horns provide the volumes of the somatic motor neurons?
|
Anterior ventral horns
|
|
|
What horns provide volumes of higher-order sensory neurons?
|
Posterior dorsal horns
|
|
|
What is meant by isotonic?
|
This means there is no difference (osmotic and hydrostatic pressure) in the cell.
|
|
|
What is the equation to determine osmosis, meaning what is osmosis measured in?
|
Measured as volume flow
Jv = Lp* A (deltaP - delta pi) |
|
|
Why would the osmotic pressure of salt be higher than water?
|
Because the salt particles can dissociate into two.
|
|
|
What channels only allow water to pass through?
|
AQP
|
|
|
What is the most important factor in determining water flow?
|
Osmotic pressure
|
|
|
What is osmotic pressure?
|
This is an hydrostatic pressure created by the difference in solutes between solutions that are separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
|
|
|
Why is it important the sodium potassium pump remains functional?
|
If the pump stops
Cell will gain more Sodium and potassium will leave. (No Na-K ATPase to balance this) There will be more sodium entering the cell due to the cells electrical gradient. Osmotic pressure will increase The cell will swell |
|
|
Why does the cell gain more Na, than the K leaving the cell?
|
Because of the cells electric gradient.
|
|
|
What goes in and out of the cell with the Na-K ATPase?
|
Kick out shit (Sodium)
Send in the Klowns (Potassium) |
|
|
Explain what occurs duing regulatory volume decrease in cells that are exposed to a hypotonic solution?
|
When cells are exposed to hypotonic solution they initially swell, but after some time the volume decreases and returns toward normal. This occurs by loss of cellular osmolytes such K+, Cl-, amino acids, polyols and sugars through channels and/or transporters.
|
|
|
Explain what occurs during regulatory volume increase in cells that are exposed to a hypertonic solution?
|
When cells are placed in a hypertonic solution they initially shrink, but after some time the volume increases back towards normal. This occurs by the cell gaining osmoles, initially ions (Na, Cl and K) but later up the synthesis or uptake of polyols (sorbitol and myoinositol) and amines (betaine and taurine).
|
|
|
Where is Regulatory Volume increase/decrease seen within the body and what is Myoniositol?
|
This is typically seen in the kidneys and Myonisitol is usually created when the kidneys are under osmotic stress, in order to increase the osmotic pressure within the cell.
The Na/myoinositol cotransporter gene (SMIT) is regulated within hours to change the density of SMIT transporters in the plasma membrane. Up-regulation results in myoinositol accumulation within the cell. When the cell is returned to a normal isotonic solution SMIT is inactivated and the density of SMIT in the membrane returns to normal. The most important response occurs in the renal medulla where, depending on your state of water balance, cells are exposed to fluids ranging from 50 to 1,500 milliosmolar. |
|
|
In the nephrons of proximal tubule, the rate of water flow is proportional to the rate of salt flow, what provides the salt flow?
|
This is done by proteins on the epithelial that increase salt reabsorption.
|
|
|
What is local osmosis?
|
This was done to say that water transport in the epithelial of the nephrons in the proximal tubules, must occur in the lateral spaces of the epithelial cells
|
|
|
What is oral rehydration therapy?
|
Taking this will increase salt and water reabsorption. This is done by stimulating GLUT transporters in the lumen.
|
|
|
What are the two means of adminstration for drugs?
|
They can be administered either parenteral (not through the GI tract) or enteral (through the GI tract)
|
|
|
What are the two ways for drug administration under enteral administration?
|
Through the mouth or through the rectum
|
|
|
What is the thearpeutic window?
|
The range of plasma drug concentration that will give a therapeutic effect
|
|
|
What is the pharmacokinetic profile?
|
The characteristics of a drug are described by its absorption, distrubion, metabolism and excretion properties
|
|
|
What is the first pass effect (drug absorption enteral)?
|
When taking drugs to be absorbed in the GI tract, they will enter into the liver and undergo metabolism (The drugs get into the liver via the hepatic portal system).
The first pass is the amount of the drug that is metabolized in the liver before entering the systemic circulation. |
|
|
What is bioavailabilty?
|
The fraction of an adminstered dose of medication that reaches systemic circulation
|
|
|
What mode of administration will have 100% bioavailabilty?
|
IV
|
|
|
What is the calculation for bioavailabilty?
|
Area under curve (oral dose)/Area under curve (IV)*100=% BIOAVAILABILTY
|
|
|
What mode of transportation for drugs has these qualities:
Depends on concentration gradient Not saturable |
Diffusion
|
|
|
What is partition coefficient?
|
The partition coefficient is in reference to the lipid quality.
|
|
|
A drug with a higher partition coefficient is more likely to go through the lipid bilayer. True or false
|
True-Heroin is more lipid than morphine
|
|
|
What is the equation for partition coefficient?
|
Partition coefficient=[drug] in lipid phase/ [drug] in aqueous phase
|
|
|
What mode of drug transportation has these qualities:
Uses an active transporter Is saturable |
Facilitated diffusion
|
|
|
What is pinocytosis?
|
Transport process in which large structures such as proteins and lipid complexes are engulfed by the cell and subsequently introduced into the contents to the cytoplasm
|
|
|
Can the neutral or charged form of a drug cross the membrane?
|
Neutral
Remember the quaternary amine is always charged |
|
|
Why is it beneficial to use a quaternary form of a drug?
|
If you want a peripheral effect of a drug, we use the quaternary form since it doesn't significantly cross a cell membranes.
|
|
|
Why are charged molecules less likely to cross the cell membrane?
|
They are hydrophillic
|
|
|
When does pKa equal pH?
|
When [] of acid and base are equal
|
|
|
What is the henderson-hasslbach equation?
|
Ph=pka +log (base)/log(acid)
|
|
|
What is ion trapping?
|
As drug in its neutral form moves into a area with lower pH, it will become its charged form and then become trapped.
|
|
|
How is ion trapping effective?
|
Knowing that acids donate hydrogens and become neutral and bases accept hydrogens and become charged, this is what determines what will be trapped and not trapped in interstitium, urine and plasma
|
|
|
What is plasma, urine and stomach pH?
|
Plasma-7.4
Stomach-1 Urine-8 |
|
|
What is important for drugs and perfusion?
|
Some tissues are perfused less than others, so taking drugs may take longer to see onset (such as muscle or fat)
|
|
|
Is the drug bound to a protein or the unbound form, pharmacologically active?
|
The unbound form
|
|
|
What explains why cerain drugs have greater half-lifes than others?
|
Some drugs are mixed in with bile salts in the liver.
They are then released with bile (bile will absorb fats in the GI tract). Then after being released with bile they can be hydrolyzed and then reabsorped into systemic circulation. |
|
|
What makes up the junctions of the Blood Brain Barrier?
|
The brain has capillaries that form tight cellular junctions.
|
|
|
Why are ome drugs seen to be cleared more effectively?
|
Some cells have drug efflux transporters. This is seen in some tumors.
|
|
|
What kind of transporter has these qualities?
Can accumulate non-metabolic sugars Can become saturated Different isomers of sugars can undergo competition Is specific, but can take in different isomers of a sugar Requires energy that is provided for by the sodium-potassium pump |
Cotransporters
|
|
|
What is the driving force for the cotrasporters in the body?
|
The Na-K+ pump
|
|
|
Where is the Na-Ca antiport important?
|
This important in the heart.
|
|
|
How does the Na-Ca antiport function?
|
The Na sodium will go down its concentration gradient and allow the Calium to exit the cell.
This is important in the heart |
|
|
What will happen if the Na-K+ pump is inhibited, in regard to the Na-Ca antiport and the heart?
|
If the Na-K is inhibited then the there will be no sodium concentration gradient, since sodium will just go down its concentration gradient.
The antiport won't function since Sodium isn't going into the cell Calcium won't be leaving the cell. This will cause an increase in heart concentrations |
|
|
When undergoing transport through an epithelial cell there are two forms of transport, which are?
|
Transcelluar-go through the epithelial cell
Paracellular-go through the tight junctions |
|
|
What couples epithelial cells together?
|
Zonula Adherin (these use actin fillaments and cadherin)
|
|
|
Are epithelial cells usually in sheets?
|
Yes
|
|
|
Tight junctions are sometimes leaky, this can be measured with electric resistance. A large electric resistance means what?
|
That there is nothing going through the tight junction and is NOT going through paracellular transport.
|
|
|
Why is the collecting duct not leaky?
|
You have worked hard to make a concentration gradient up to this point.
|
|
|
Kidneys absorb fluid and other substances in the proximal tubules. This is accomplished by what?
|
The use of proteins.
The [] of K and [] and NA is the same as every other cell in the body (High -K INSIDE and LOW Cl and Na inside).. On the lumen there will be sodium and chloride channels. Plasma side will have Na-K pump, Cl channel out of the cell and potassium channel out of the cell into plasma |
|
|
Is there a higher concentration of potassium in the cell or outside the cell?
|
Inside
|
|
|
What is the difference between steady stateee and equilibrium?
|
Steady state-There is a nonzero chemical gradient
Equilibrium -Chemical potential gradients are zero |
|
|
What is function of Na-K ATPase?
|
3 sodium out
2 potassium in |
|
|
What is the partition coefficient?
|
This is the lipid solubility.
|
|
|
What is the equation for determining?
|
The rate of diffusion is :
Jx = Px A (Co - Ci) |
|
|
How does one determine the partition coefficient?
|
This is the [molecule] lipid divided by [molecule] water
|
|
|
What are ways in making a molecule more soluble in a plasma membrane?
|
Reduce the H-Bonds
Add hydrophobic groups |
|
|
99.9% of membrane proteins in the body are in what form?
|
The alpha helix
|
|
|
What causes K+ to enter the cell when in use with the Na-K ATPase?
|
The hydrolysis of ATP will allow the K+ to enter
|
|
|
What is a popular uniporter?
|
The GLUT1
|
|
|
Do uniporter use ATP?
|
Nope, it is based on [] gradient
|
|
|
What transporter has theses qualities:
Is saturable Transport is sterospecific May transport isomer Transport is competitive Transports down [] gradient Transport is reversible |
Uniporters
|
|
|
Which of the following can GLUT1 (uniporter) recognize and transport?
D-GLU D-GALA L-GLU L-GALA |
D-GLU
D-GALA (lower affinity) Uniporters are sterospecific |
|
|
Explain how one could get diabetes type II using GLUT4 in your example?
|
GLUT 4:
There are many forms of GLUT. GLUT4 is concerned with obtaining plasma glucose and is activated through insulin. If insulin doesn't activate GLUT4 then there will be increased plasma glucose concentration. |
|
|
Where will one always find the Na-K ATPase, apical or basolateral membrane?
|
Basolateral membrane
|
|
|
What is involved in the SGLT co-transporter?
|
Sodium moves down concentration and brings in glucose as well.
|
|
|
The apical surface faces the _______.
|
Lumen
|
|
|
Since it has been said water transport is directly proportional to the rate of active solute transport, it has been hypothesized that water transport is secondary to _______ ______ transport.
|
Active solute
|
|
|
What does the basolateral surface face?
|
The plasma
|
|
|
Why must cholorine go into the cell with sodium?
|
This is to make sure the membrane potential isn't depolorized.
Sodium cannot go into the cell by itself. |
|
|
Where does HCO3 come from?
|
The bicarbonate comes from CO2
|
|
|
What happens when HCO3 and H join?
|
They will reverse the reaction and form H2O and CO2
|
|
|
What is CFTR used for.....?
|
Taking Cl from the plasma and secreting it towards the apical surface = Secretion
|
|
|
What is the therapeutic index?
|
This is the range of doses that produce a therapeutic effect, without side effects.
|
|
|
What is the equation for the therapeutic index?
|
TI= Toxic/Effective
|
|
|
What is the difference between phamacodynamic and pharmacokinetics?
|
PK- What body does to drugs
PD- What drug does to body |
|
|
The quantal dose-response curve plots what?
|
It plots the fraction of the population that responseds to a given dose
|
|
|
What is the median effective dose?
|
This is when 50% of the population have a effective dose to the drug
|
|
|
What is the therapeutic window?
|
range of doses that produce a therapeutic response, without unacceptable side effects; an index of drug safety.
|
|
|
How can one determine an appropriate dose for an effect?
|
You find out what concentration you need at the site of action, either in vivo (body) or in vitro (tissue)
|
|
|
What is the difference between a graded and quantal dose-response curve?
|
Quantal shows how much of population take drug and get response
Graded gives a representation between quantity of drug and the graded biological effect |
|
|
What is efficacy?
|
Refers to the maximal response achievable by a particular drug for a particular response
|
|
|
What is potency?
|
Refers to the effective dose or concentration that produces 50% of its maximal response ED50, or EC50 respectively
|
|
|
When comparing drugs and they have the same efficacy, the drug that achieves ED50 at a lower concentration is the more _____ drug.
|
Potent
|
|
|
Drugs that show a maximal efficacy are termed ______ ______
|
Full agonists
|
|
|
Drugs that show a lower efficacy than the maximal efficacy are termed ____ _____
|
Partial agonists
|
|
|
How can you tell if you have an competitive antagonist or an allosteric antagonist?
|
If you add more agonists and there is an effect you know it is an competititve
If you add more agonist and no effect, you know it is an allosteric |
|
|
When an allosteric antagonist is added the maximal efficacy is reduced but what remains constant?
|
The EC50
|
|
|
With an irreversible antagonist, the antagonist will covalently bind to the receptor and create an nonfunctional receptors. However, in studies it was illustrated that despite some receptors being inactivated, the efficacy was still the same, why?
|
We have spare receptors
|
|
|
What is Kd?
|
The tendency for a drug to associate with a drug receptor
|
|
|
Drugs with a low Kd will have a _____ affinity for the receptors
|
High
|
|
|
If drug A has a Ka of 1, what concentration of A will result in 50% receptor occupancy.
|
1
|
|
|
What drugs bind to inactive receptors?
|
Inverse agonists
|
|
|
What happens after prolonged use of agonists?
|
Desensitiazation of receptor (tachyphylaxis) and a down regulation of receptors, less receptors
|
|
|
What happens afer a prolonged use of antagonist?
|
Receptor up regulation
|
|
|
In the two state receptor model, the receptor not bound to a ligand can have some baseline activity calle the constitutive activity. What will bring the baseline activity lower?
|
The inverse agonist
-Will bind to inactive receptors and lower the constiutive activity |
|
|
What are four mentioned drug targets?
|
Ion channels
ITC receptors Phosphorylation G Protein |
|
|
Do Antagonists also have a Kd?
|
Yes
|
|
|
What is an xenobiotic compound?
|
This is a exogenous compound that enters the body but is later excreted from the body
|
|
|
What are the two ways to make a molecule more polar? (The two phases)
|
Phase I-Functionalization (place a polar molecule onto the substand)
Phase II- Conjugation (Functionalized compound is conjugated with a biological substrate such as glycine) |
|
|
Cytochrome P450 is made up of two proteins, which are?
|
Cytochrome reducatase
and p450 heme protein |
|
|
Whats the purpose of Phase I and Phase II metabolization?
|
This is to increase the hydrophillicity of the molecule so it can be excreted
|
|
|
Where is the richest source of CP450?
|
The liver
|
|
|
What can you say about the family,protein (gene), sub class of this CYP
CYP1A2 |
1-Family/class
A-Sub-class or sub-family 2-Specific protein or gene |
|
|
What is the mechanism of CYP450? Briefly what happens.
|
CYP will bring in electron and oxygen into system
This will prime P450 So that P450 can then bind a drug molecule and then add an -OH group onto the molecule |
|
|
If you see the nor- nomenclature, what does this mean?
|
This means that you have removed a methyl group?
|
|
|
What are some examples of NONP450 Oxidation?
|
Alcohol dehydrogenase
-Alcohol to aldehyde and then carboxylic acid Monoamine oxidase -Convert primary amines to aldehydes Esterase activity -Metabolize esters and amides to carboxylic acids |
|
|
Why is it important concerning whether a drug only uses on CYP to be metabolized?
|
Because inhibiting this CYP will cause the drug to last longer in the plasma
|
|
|
If you have inhibited MAO, what in food should you be aware of?
|
Tyramine
|
|
|
What type of phase 1 reaction quickly metabolizes drugs?
|
Esterase activity
|
|
|
In phase II metabolism, what must have already occured to the metabolite?
|
It must have a polar substrate attached.
|
|
|
Why is it bad to take too much acetaminophen?
|
The intermediate (iminopurine) can react with proteins and cause liver toxicity
|
|
|
Why would you make a prodrug (inactive form of drug), go through metabolism and then become an active metabolite?
|
This will help us overcome the problems we face with drug delivery
|
|
|
What are three factors that effect drug metabolism?
|
Age(have lower CYP as you get older), Genetics, Environment
|
|
|
What is the effect of some drugs causing CYP450 induction and CYP450 inhibition?
|
The induction can cause to drug metabolism increased
The inhibition can cause drug metabolism to decrease and drug effect is increased. |
|
|
The buildup of acetylaldehyde (Genetics-pharmacogenetics) usually results in?
|
Flushing, nausea and tacycardia(increased heart rate)
|
|
|
What is bioavailability?
|
The fraction of administered does that reaches circulation as compared with the same dose of IV
|
|
|
What is bioequivalaence??
|
Two pharmaceutical products, with same dosage are bioequivalent, if their bioavailabilites (rate and extent of availability) after administration are similar with respect to both efficacy and safety
|
|
|
What is the volume of distribution?
|
The apparent volume of fluid required to contain the total amount of drug at a uniform concentration equivalent to that in plasma at steady state.
|
|
|
A large Volume of distrubiton indicates what about that drug?
|
A large Vd that is larger than total body water will imply that the sequestration of drug into fat tissues and other non-plasma compartments
These kind of drugs are very lipopohillic and will not be ready for metabolism |
|
|
What is the equation for volume of distribution?
|
Vd= Administer Dose/Concentration at time 0
|
|
|
What two places in the kidney are drugs filtered?
|
The glomerlus and the peritubular capilaries
|
|
|
Where can drugs by active secreted in the kidneys?
|
The proximal tubule
|
|
|
Where can passive reabsorption occur and under what conditions in the kidney?
|
The distal tubule and collecting duct
When drug concentration in tubule is less than that in the perivascular. |
|
|
Drugs that are not metabolized, need to be eliminated through renal filtration, what can happen if someone has a problem with their kidneys?
|
Will not eliminate drug as readily and will have a narrow therapeutic window
|
|
|
What is constant in half life?
|
You have a constant fraction
|
|
|
What is the equation for a time for one half life?
|
.693/k=time for one half life
|
|
|
Rate of elimination of drug is proportional to what in first order kinetics?
|
Drug concentration
|
|
|
In the two compartment system there are two phases alpha and beta, what is the elimination phase and what is used to get half life time?
|
Beta for both
|
|
|
What is clearance?
|
The rate of elimination of drug from the body, relative to the concentration of drug in plasma
|
|
|
What are two equations for determining clearance?
|
Rate of elimination/Plasma concentration
Kel*Vd Time of half life = (.693*Vd)/Cl |
|
|
Drugs with large Vd will have a ___ half life and are very _______ in character?
|
Large
Lipophilic |
|
|
What is esentially the steady state (drugs)?
|
This is when rate of infusion = rate of elimination
|
|
|
What is the equation for Css?
|
Rate of elimination= Cl*Css
Rate of elimination=Rate of infusion Rate of infusion/Cl=Css |
|
|
When undergoin oral drug administration, what is the equation used to reach a steady state?
|
F*maintance dose/Clearnace *interval dose = Css
|
|
|
What is a loading dose and how is this calculated?
|
This is the dose that is given to quickly reach the therapeutic levels and it is found with Vd* plasma concentration
|
|
|
In a zero order drug, the rate of the drug is not eliminated on a constant rate, will not depend on the plasma concentration of the drug...meaning what?
|
Meaning drug will be metabolized at a maximal rate and not based on plasma concentration
|
|
|
What is Vmax?
|
Rate of metabolism or elimination
|
|
|
If a substance , such as sodium,passes through the paracellualr pathway, what kind of cell junction is it passing through?
|
A Tight Junction
|
|
|
Gap Junctions are functional junctions that form channels called _____. That allow movement of inorganic ions and small ______- _____ molecules between two cells.
|
Water-soluble
|
|
|
The secretory coil of the sweat gland has “leaky” tight junctions. In terms of its permeability properties, this type of tight junction
|
Allows some ions to permeate but is selective about which ions can go through
|
|
|
When you see bicarb and protons entering the luman and Cl and Na going towards the blood, where is this kinda of transport taking place?
|
In the nephrons of the proximal tubule
|
|
|
What is the difference between Acanthosis, Acantholysis and Spongiosus?
|
Acanthosis-This is when there is increased thickness of the squamous layer, that results in long, multiple rete ridges
Acantholysis- This is when the keratinocytes are detached. The detached keratinocytes will look round in shape Spong- This is the accumulation of colorless edematous fluid of the squamous layer |
|
|
Would you want a high therapeutic index or low therapeutic index?
|
A higher therapeutic index is preferable to a lower one; this corresponds to a situation in which one would have to take a much higher dose of a drug to reach the toxic threshold than the dose taken to elicit the therapeutic effect, thus minimizing negative effects from accidental overdose.
|
|
|
The axial (vertebra) is derived from the _______ mesoderm and the appendicular is from the ________ mesoderm.
|
Paraxial
lateral plate |
|
|
What qualities do you want in ORT?
|
You want an osm be around 245osmol
-Lower than plasma -So the blood will be hypertonic -Will absorb the water. YOU WANT TO TAKE AWAY FROM THE GUT TO THE PLASMA |
|
|
What is the main effect of the ORT?
|
Move Na+ and glucose from the intestinal lumen to the blood so that water will follow.
|
|
|
What is the function of CFTR?
|
In sweat duct epithelia, CFTR drives the reabsorption of salt
While in intestinal, pancreatic and respiratory airway epithelia CFTR powers the secretion of Cl and HCO3 |
|
|
How does Cholera cause diarrhea?
|
□ Intestinal crypt cells, the primary secretory cells found in the small intestinal mucosa, respond to numerous secretagogues including acetylcholine, prostaglandins, and vasoactive intestinal peptide and the second messengers Ca2+ and cAMP to lead to chloride secretion through CFTRs located on the apical (luminal) side of the cells
□ In the presence of cholera toxin, chloride transport into the intestinal lumen through CFTRs located on the luminal surface of intestinal crypt cells is continuously activated by intracellular cAMP causing osmotic diarrhea drawing water into the lumen and leading to the characteristic large volumes of watery diarrhea. |
