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130 Cards in this Set

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what does the transactivation domain do?

DNA binding?

hormone binding?
transactivation: interacts with RNAP II holoenzyme (TFs, mediators, coactivators, corepressors)

DNA binding: has zinc fingers that bind to HREs (hormone response elements)
active Hormone binding domain recruits....

inactive HBD recruits...
active: HATs

inactive: HDACs
where is the glucorticoid receptor located?

where is the estrogen receptor located?

thyroid receptor?
GR: in cytoplasm; when inactive bound to HSP, when active dimerizes and travels to nucleus to bind GRE

ER: in nucleus; ER binding translocates to ERE to recruit HATS and RNAPII

TR: already bound to target gene (complexes with HDAC to repress when inactive
What is action and purpose of tamoxifen?

ulipristal?
tamoxifen (selective estrogen receptor modulator SERM): binds the HBD of ER; prevents recruitment of coactivators, thus preventing conformational change of transactivation domain

ulipristal (SPRM): ANTAGONIST; decreases uterine bleeding, fibroid volume (no side effects like with GnRH); can be used for emergency contraception; birth control is also a SPRM antagonist
What is action and purpose of flutamide/bicalutamide?

what is a bad thing that can happen if you take this for a while?
SARM

can be used to treat prostate cancer

binds AR, recruits coreppressor protein, shuts down target genes

bad: resistance can form resulting in castrin-restistant tumor formation (inactivated androgen receptors mutate and become active again
what are the 5 stages of prophase I?
Leptotene: condensation of replicated chromosomes

Zygotene: synaptonemal complexes

Pachytene: completion of synapsis and cross over

Diplotene: disappearance of synaptonemal complex (chismata remains)

Diakineis: condensation of chroosome for meiosis
what is role of Spo II in meiosis?

what bout Rad51/Dmc1?
holiday model of crossover

SpoII: endonucleus that generates DS breaks

Rad51/Dmc1: strand invasion and exchange
what is heteroduplex DNA?
result of Prophase I exchange
synapsis vs. synaptonemal complex
synapsis: homologous chromatids pair up during P1 (tetrads)

synaptonemal complex: zipper that tethers homologous chromosomes during P1
chiasmata vs. cohesin?
chiasmata: homologous chromosomes stuck together

cohesin: holds sister chromatids together
primary oocyte arrested in what phase

secondary oocyte
primary: prophase I; crossing over has occurred but chiasmata still intact (resume at ovulation)

secondary: metaphase II (resume at fertilization)
how is metaphase I prevented from happening?

what happens to make the transisition to MI?
increased cAMP-->PKA--->phosphorylated cdc25 (inactivated) and weel kinase activated (phosphorylates CDK1/cycB-->inactivated)

LH binds receptors on granulosa cells of gaffian follicle results in activation of CDK1/cycB (decreased cAMP levels)
why are levels of CDK1/cycb activity decreased after ovulation?
decreased after M1 so chromosome will remain condensed and nuclear envelope does not form
how does metaphase II arrest happen?
Progesterone levels--->Cytostatic factor (CSF) component : MOS blocks APC

MOS uses MAPK pathway resulting in activation of kinase p90rsk--Mad/bub is downstream effector which inhibits APC

arrest is due to inability of APC to ubiquinate cyclin B
how does anaphase II get initiated?
sperm binds ovum which causes increase in [Ca]intracellular

APC activated by Ca-dependent phosphorylation

APC ubiquinates cyclin B--->degredation-->anaphse II
differentiate the two types of spermatagonia A
stem cells: continuous mitotic dividison

progenitor: divide mitotically several times and remain connected (incomplete cytokenesis)
starting with a Type A cell, get to spermatozoa:
type A stem (mitosis) type A prog (mitosis) type B (one round of mitosis), primary spermatoctye (meiosis I), secondary spermatocyte (meiosis II), spermatid (spermiogenesis), spermatozoa
what are the gender differences in initiation of meiosis?
females: entire pop of oogonia initiates meiosis in fetal ovaries; primary oocyte arrested in diplotene stage at P1 prior to birth

male: Type A stem cell pop maintained in testes; @puberty, spermatogonia B initiate meisis continuously
gender differences: M1
female: resume jsut before ovulation; produces 1 haploid secondary oocyte

male: not arrested; produces 2 haploid secondary spermatocyte
gender differences M2
female: coordinated with fertilization; result is 1 haploid ovum

male: MII occurs immeidately after 1st meiotic division; result is 4 haploid spermatid
gender differences: recombination frequency
females 1.7 times more than males
A 45-year-old woman who is pregnant is concerned that her developing fetus has Trisomy 21 (Down's Syndrome). An amniocentesis is performed and a karyotyping made from the biopsied cells. It is found that the cells show a karyotype consistent with trisomy 21. The time that this chromosomal event probably occurred was during:

A) The fusion of the male and female pronuclei at fertilization

B)The first meiotic division of oogenesis

C)The second meiotic division of oogenesis

D)The first meiotic division of the spermatogenesis

E) The second meiotic division of spermatogenesis
it is most probable that since all of the cells demonstrate trisomy, that the result of this is due to the non-disjunction of chromosome 21 during the first meiotic division of the primary oocyte. While this might also occur during the second meiotic division, it is much more rare. Similarly, it is more atypical that the male gamete undergoes non-disjunction during the meiotic divisions associated with spermatogenesis, or at the time of fertilization.
The approximate age at which spermatogenesis begins in the life of a male human is

During oogenesis, all of the primary oocytes are formed by what time in the life of the individual?

The time at which oogenesis is completed and forms a mature oocyte is
spermatogenesis: puberty

primary oocyte: birth

mature oocyte: fertilization
The biopsy of the ovary from an 8-year-old female reveals the appearance of a normal ovary, the cortex of which consisted predominantly of which type of follicle?
While all of the primary oocytes are present in newborn female infants, these primary oocytes remain as primordial follicles until stimulated by gonadotrophins at the onset of puberty, usually about 11-13 years of age. Therefore, in this example, the biopsy of an ovary from an 8-year-old girl would show a predominance (almost exclusively) of primordial follicles.
describe the ureter innervation to generate peristalsis?
PNS (musc) and SNS (alpha)===>GO!

SNS (beta)==>stop!
describe the PNS innervation to the bladder?

SNS?

somatic?
PNS (pelvic nerves): motor to detrussor and sensory for distension (both needed to void)

SNS (hypogastric nerves): motor (beta: inhibitatory) to lateral walls of vesical, motor (alpha: excitatory) to internal sphincter at trigone

somatic (pudendal nerve): excitatroy input to external sphincter
what is the difference between pontine micturition center and cortical control?

what happens when either is hurt?
pontine: facilitory (destruction: disturbs voiding)

contical center: inhibitatory; voluntary control of restraint (destruction: hyperactive detrussor)
how does Benzotropine affect bladder function?
acetocholinesterase that disrupts the ability of bladder to respond to PNS signals to contract the detrussor
differentiate the following types of incontinance: stress, urge and bladder
stress: (women) trauma to sphincters

urge: (prostate) bladder becomes too sensitive (empties too often)

blader incontinance: increased bladder volumne overwhelms sphincter
contractile dysfunction is (above/below) sacral reflex arc.

noncontracile dysfunction is (above/below) sacral reflex arc.
contractile: above

noncontractile: below
what is the similarity and differences between unhibited bladder and reflex/automatic bladder?
similarity: contractile dysfunctions

uninhibited: voiding reflex triggered at certain volume; vo(avoid by voiding before magic level)

reflex/automatic bladder: no voluntary control, decreased storage capacity; can lead to renal damage
describe noncontractile bladder
paralyzed detrussor, voluntary control lost; pressure overrides sphincter

increased bladder volume
Which cells produce a hormone that is responsible for selectively inhibiting FSH secretion?
granulosa cells produce inhibin
During sexual intercourse, which gland in the female is responsible for lubricating mucus production?
The vestibular gland secretes a mucus which provides lubrication for intercourse. The walls of the vagina also become moist as a result of transudation of fluid through the mucous membrane.
When is genetic sex determined?
at conception
what other hormone is required for progesterone to function?
For progesterone to affect the genital tract, the cells must first have been exposed to estradiol, which induces synthesis of receptors for progesterone.
how does progesterone affect the uterus?

cervix?

when does placenta take over production from CL?
The structure of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is similar to luteinizing hormone (LH). HCG is responsible for maintaining the CL (corpus luteum) that produces progesterone.

Progesterone relaxes the smooth muscle in the walls of the uterus. This helps prevent premature contractions. Estrogen is thought to prime the uterus for contractions by increasing the number of oxytocin receptors on the muscle.

Progesterone keeps the cervix closed.

HCG is responsible for maintaining the CL (corpus luteum) that produces progesterone. After ovulation, the follicle fills in with yellowish luteal cells thus forming the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes both estrogen and progesterone to help prepare the uterus for possible implantation. If fertilization does occur, the CL grows and secretes even more progesterone and estrogen to maintain pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, the CL atrophies leading to loss of hormonal support of the uterus and a new ovarian cycle begins.

Placental production of progesterone takes over at week 8
describe how thecal and granulosa cells interact (two cell theory)
Production of androgens appears to be the main product of the thecal cells. This product, androgen is necessary for the granulosa cells to produce estrogens. The receptors for FSH on granulosa cells interact with FSH to cause an increase in aromatase activity which is necessary to transform androgens to estrogens
Protection of the oocyte against polyspermy is by a release of factors from the oocyte. Specific granules protect the oocyte from polyspermy. What are those granules called
Cortical granules extrude their contents into the perivitelline space starting usually at the moment of sperm penetration of the oocyte.
What is another function of the zona pellucida besides protection of the egg or embryo?
development of pre-implantation embryo
What is another name for LHRH (luteinizing releasing hormone)?
GnRH
Human chorionic gonadotropin is (hCG) is secreted by what cell type?
syncytiotrophoblast
What is the site of rupture of the mature Graafian follicle?
stigma
what do the mullerian ducts differentiate into?
Mullerian ducts in the female differentiate into oviducts and uterine horns. In most mammals, uterus horns remain distinct. In primates and man they fuse to form a simplex type uterus.
To achieve ovulation, luteinizing hormone must be released in amounts to initiate its effect on the Graafian follicle. What hormone is necessary to initiate the LH surge to initiate ovulation?
estrogen
whats in the antrum?
The antrum is derived as a cavity filled with follicular fluid (liquor folliculi) rich in estrogen. The antrum is formed in the growing follicle and continues to enlarge as it fills with fluid rich in estrogen and the follicle protrudes on the surface as a blister.
Prolactin causes milk synthesis. Suckling stimulus causes release of prolactin and maintains synthesis and release of prolactin. What parameter does the suckling stimulus inhibit with respect to cyclicity?
GnRH

thus inhibits LH/FSH
how do progestone and estrogen affect breast development differently?
Progesterone causes growth of lobules and alveoli whereas proliferation of mammary ducts is due to estrogens.
At the time of ovulation, under estrogen influence, the mucus appears in a pattern when dried. What is the term used for that pattern?
fern-like
The first step in synthesis of steroids is derived from the cleavage of cholesterol. What is the enzyme responsible for the cleavage of 20,22-dihydrocholesterol to pregnenolone?
Delta 5-3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3 B - HSD)
Progesterone is converted to 17-alpha hydroxyprogesterone by which enzyme?

androstenedione to testosterone is by which enzyme?
17 alpha hydroxylase

17 beta hydroxylase
Products that help neutralize the acid pH of the vaginal vault are produced by the
prostate
In the male, FSH is responsible for stimulating:
spertatogenesis
what is the cause of the increase in basal body temp during the luteal phase?
the increased levels of progesterone raises the set point temperature in the hypothalamus
ex vivo vs. in vivo vs. in situ
ex vivo: take cells out, mess with 'em, put em back

in vivo: systemic drug delivery

in situ: localized delivery
what is the ideal vector as it relates to the following:

reproducibility

types of cells it affects

site specificity

immune response
easy to reproduce

dividing and non dividing cells

sit specific location on host

no immune response
what are some advantages and disadvantages of adenovirus?
dsDNA

dividing and non dividing cells

disadvantages: nonintegration, transient expression
what are some advantages and disadvantages of AAV?
ssDNA

dividing and non dividing

disadvantages: non integration, small capacity

transgene expression: potentially long lasting
what are some advantages and disadvantages of retro/lentivirus?
ssRNA, long lasting

disadvantages: cells must be dividing, random integration into genome
what are some advantages and disadvantages of herpes virus?
dsDNA, dividing and non dividing, huge capacity (4X)

disadvantage: no integratio

potentially long lasting
monosomy

trisomy

triploidy

tetraploidy

mosaism
monosomy: only one copy of particular chromosome (45)

trisomy: 3 copies (47)

triploidy: 69 chromsomes (2 sperm, 1 egg)

tetraploidy 92 chromosomes (failure to complete 1st division)

mosaism: individual with two cell populations
diagnostic screening for trisomy 21

ultrasound

bioarkers

karyokypes

sequencing
ultrasound: increased fluid

biomarkers: low PAPP-A, high HcG; quad test (alpha-fetoprotein, HCh, estriol, inhibin A)

karyotypes: risky b/c may cause miscarriage

sequencing: low z score good
trisomy 13

18
13: patau (47XY, +13)

18: edwards (47XY, +18)
Turners

Klinefelters

Triple X female

XYY
turners: (45,X)

klinefelters (XXY)

triple X and xyy: asymbomatic
robertsonian translocation
fusion of long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes;

short arms are lost (rRNA genes)
criduchat
spontaneous deletion (46,XX, del 5)
pericentric vs. paracentric inversion
peri: inversion across centromere

paracentric: inversion w/in one area of chromsome
At which stage in the menstrual cycle are the endometrial glandular cells maximally developed and stimulated?
late secretory
trisomy 21:

what is the result when nondisjunction occurs in M1?

M2?
M1: 2 trisomy gametes, 2 monosomy

M2: 2 normal gametes, 1 trisomy, 1 monosomy
where are leydig cells found?
in the intertubular cpace of the seminferous tubules
what is the difference between type A and type B spermatagonia?
type a: oval euchromatic nucleus/nucleolus attached to nuclear envelope

type b: round nucleus, masses of heterochromatin and central nucleolus (dark in middle and not so dark patches on the outside)
how long does spermatogenesis last:

what are the three parts of sperm development
64 days

1. spermatogenesis: spermatozoa to spermatocyte

2. meiosis: spermatocyte to spermatid

3. spermiogensis: spermatid to spermatozoa
what happens in the following spermiogenesis phases:

golgi phase

cap phase

acrosomal phase

maturation phase
golgi: polarize (acrosomal vesicle on side and centrioles on the other)

cap: acrosomal sac flattens and descends around nucles; centriolar pair forms axoneme; SPERMATID ROTATES 180 degrees (tail out!)

acrosomal stage: mancheete develops and moves caudally; mito align along axoneme

maturation: manchete does its thing and disappears, residuals bodes eaten by sertoli cells; CHROMATIN CONDENSES
how does prolactin affect leydig cells?
induces expression of LH receptor
what cells population marks the transition from seminferous epithelium to tubulus rectus?
columnar sertoli cells
describe the rete testis epithelium? what about the interluminal androgen concentrations?
simple cuboidal epithelium

lots of androgens (good b/c ABP released by sertolis)
describe the efferent ductule epithlium?
scalloped outline

priniciplel cells with microfilli and ciliated cells (to propel sperm)
describe the epididymis epithelium.
principal cells with sterocilia and basal cells
how can you distinguish the vas deferens?
lots of smooth muscle

narrow lumen

pseudostratified columnar with sterocilia
how can you distinguish the seminal vesicles?

what is their purpose?
lots of vacuoles; lots of fructose, proteins and prostiglandins

capacitates sperm
what is BPH?
noncancerous enlargement of prostate gland that can restrict flow of urine through prostatic urethra

nodules in mucosal glands
what reaction does 17-HSD catalyze?

desmolase

Star

which is RL enzyme?
17-HSD: Androstenendione to Testosterone

Desmolase: cholesterol to pregnenolone

staR: cholesterol esters to Desmolase/SCC (RLS)
what happens to testicles and sperm production if FSH is reduced?
decreased ball size and decreasesd sperm production
descibe the fetal and pubertal targets of T
fetal: TUBING; epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle

puberty: YOUNG MAN; penis, seminal glands, musculature, skeleton, larynx

SPERMATOGENESIS
describe the fetal and pubertal targets of DHT?
fetal: EXTERNAL; penis, penile urethra, scotum, prostate

puberty: OLD MAN; scrotum, prostate, sex hair, sebaceous glands, prostatic secretions
what is an inhibitor of 5 alpha reductase? what is it used for?
finasteride

prostatic hyperplasia, hirsutism, and acne
what 3 hormones are necessary for normal spermatogenesis?
FSH, LH, T
how do sertoli cells produce estrogens?
they lack desmolase
what hormone is affected when Sertoli cells secrete inihibins/activins?
FSH secretion from pituitary
what cells produce androgen binding proteins?
sertoli cells
what cells express MIS (embryo)?
antimullerian hormone

sertoli cells
what is the preferred energy source for sperm development? where is it produced?
lactate from sertoli cells
how are leydig cells stimulated before they develop pituitary glands?
placental hCG stimulates them then pituitary LH
how do bones use estrogen for growth?
bones have aromatase, specifically at the epiphyseal plate
What binds Androgen Receptor (AR) on target tissues? what binds with highest affinity?
T and DHT

DHT with higher affinity
cavernosal nerve is what category of neuron?

what is its job?
carernosal nerve: NANC (not adregenic, not cholinergic)

increases NO---->activates GC--->cGMP--->lowers intracellular calcium--->vasodilation


phosphodiesterase breaks down cGMP
differentiate Precocious Puberty and Pseudopuberty
prococious: hypersecretion of T, premature development (INCREASED REPRODUCTIVE CAPABILITY)

pseudo: increased T via adrenal cortex (NO REPRODUCTIVE CAPABILITY)
DESCRIBE THE sperm of someone taking a T Rx?
decreased sprerm density

increased T will descreases LH and FSH
differentiate 5 alpha reductase deficiency and androgen receptor defect.
5ar: decreased DHT, female phenotype at birth and virilization at puberty (increased facial hair, masculinity)

AR defects: decreased androgenization despite normal DHT
Complete Androgen resistance
46XY, female phenotype, blind ending vaginal pouch

at puberty: female secondary sex characteristics, boobs, no period, no pubic/axillary hair! Testes in intrabdominal cavity or labial folds
what hormones regulates steroid synthesis in the ovary?
LH
CYP11A1 aka

17 Beta HSD aka
desmolase

aromatase
what enzyme is needed to make progesterone from pregnenolone
3 beta HSD
how do granulosa cells produce estrogen?

how are LH and FSH needed?
androgens made from thecal cells diffuse into granulosa cells.

aromatase converts androstendione to estrone and 17BHSD1 converts estrone into estradiol-17beta
besides upregulate progesterone and estrogen for cholesterol uptake, how does LH help maintain corpus luteum
increases cholesterol uptake for steroid synthesis
how are estrogens and progesterone transported in blood?
estradiol/estrone: SSBG

progesterone: Corticosteroid binding protein
what are responsible for sex hair and sebaceous gland development?
ovarian androgens
what is thought to be upregulated at puberty, stimultaing GnRH secretion?
kisspeptin
how do you treat a girl with precocious puberty
progestational agents
how does contraception and menopause differ in relation to FSH/LH levels

why do old ladies start looking like dudes later on in life?
contraception: low FSH/LH (via negative feedback from estrogen and progestin)

Menopause: high FSH/LH (from low estrogen and low inhibin)

ovaries still secrete androgens
hCG, in both males and females, acts like.....
LH

maintains corpus luteum in girls

stimulates T synth in bros
what is the purpose of hCS/hPL?
levels increase as placental mass increase

increase supply of glucose, FFA and ketones to fetus

can result in gestational dibatetes
what is source of progestrone in women during pregnancy?
C until week 6-8: CL

after week 8: placent is main source
how does placenta make estrogen?
placenta lacks CYP17 (can't make DHEA from progesterone)

relies on androgens from fetus/mom

DHEA-S
what hormones help out during parturition
PCRH increased, prostiglandins increased, oxytocin increased
where are oxytocin and prolactin made and released?
oxytocin: made in the hypothalamus, released in posterior pituitary

prolactin: made anterior pituitary from GnRH stimulation
describe how prolactin is normally regulated and how it gets released
normally under tonic inhibition from dopamine

pregnancy: estrogen increases PRL secretion and decreases dopamine response

VIP and thyrotopin releasing factor (TRH) also are positive lactotrophs
how does prolactin affect breasts?

why doesn't lactation begin until after parturition?
increases breast development

progesteron and estradiol fall at partiution, which removes disinhibition of lactalbumin and casein synthesis
what is lactational amenorrhe?
lactation increases which results in a decrease in GnRH pulses
how do you treat prolactinomas?
dopamine agonists
where does oxytocin synthesis occur? what is included in the prohormone?
PVN

neurophysin I
what triggers oxytocin release? how does oxytocin help with contractions?
released from cervical stretching; lowers theshold for depolarization in uterine muscle.

increase in intracellular calcium, MLCK

increases in Force and number of uterine contrations
how is oxytocin related to myoepithelial cells in breasts?
oxytocin: ejection

prolactin: secretion
Fragile X syndrome affects the ability of ______ gene to code for _____
FMR1 to code for FMRP
differentiate premuation and full mutation of fragile X
premutation: 55-200 repeats, (POI, FXTAS), high transcription, low translation (hairpin)

full mutation: >200 repeats, hypermethylation, condensation, transcriptional silencing,
what is the expressive difference between female carriers of fragile x and male carriers?
males got it bad
what does the FMRP do?
RNA binding protein

binds specific mRNA's for axon function and mGluR
differentiate normal, intermediate, premutation and full mutation for fragile X syndrome
CGG repeats

normal <45

int: 45-54

pre: 55-200

full: >200
2 possible causes for fragile x
1. Meiosis
unequal crossing over in P1 of meiosis (2 screwed up)
P2: 1 screwed up

2. misparing during DNA replication, bypasses DNA repair mechanism and gets expanded during next roudn
how do norepi, kisspeptin and dopamine affect GnRH release from the median eminance?
norepi and kisspeptin increase

dopamine inhibit