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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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plasma
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fluid phase after centrifugation with heparin (prevents clotting)
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function of blood
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conveys nutrients & wastes, hormones (endocrine) and gases (O2 and CO2)
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components of plasma
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90% water
10% protein (albumin, globulins, clotting proteins, complement proteins, lipoproteins) salts, gases |
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how is serum different from plasma?
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fluid phase remaining after CLOTTING and centrifugation
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differential count
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the relative numbers of leukocytes
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number of erythrocytes
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4-6 x 10^6/microliter
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number of leukocytes
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6-10 x 10^3/microliter
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list granulocytes and percentages
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neutrophils 61%
eosinophils 3% basophils 1% |
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list agranulocytes and percentages
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monocytes 5%
lymphocytes 30% |
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RBC characteristcs
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biconcave (increase SA)
7.5 um no nucleus or organelles 120 day lifespan |
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what product is being synthesized by the polyribosomes in the cells in the early stages of erythrocyte production?
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hemoglobin
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why is the cytoplasm changing color as the cells in the erythropoietic series differentiate?
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increase in hemoglobin content leads to increased red staining; decrease in polyribosome (Hb mRNA) content leads to decreased blue staining
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how might iron deficiency affect the morphology of erythrocytes?
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RBCs are microcytic (smaller than normal) and exhibit hypochromia (less hemoglobin leads to decreased redness in the RBCs, they tend to have staining only at the periphery of the cell)
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anemia
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low RBC count
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erythrocytosis
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high RBC count
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thalassemia
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loss of function mutation gives the absence of a Hb subunit (alpha and beta); often have increased HbF in beta thalassemia
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sickle cell anemia
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d/t GLU -> VAL mutation in beta globin, gives "sickle-shaped" RBCs
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carbon monoxide poisoning
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irreversible CO binding prevents O2 transport
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band 3
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anion transporter which exports HCO3- and binds ankyrin (maintains biconcave shape by 'anchoring' to the sub-plasmalemmal network)
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outermembrane proteins of RBCs
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attach carbohydrate groups (antigen A, antigen B, Rh antigen) which confer blood type; if patient is missing antigen, the patient has antibodies against the missing antigen
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leukocyte characteristics
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move thru tissues via diapedesis
fx to defend against foreign invaders "travel in blood, work in tissues" 6-10 x 10^3/ul in peripheral blood; higher at birth |
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neutrophil appearance
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12 um
"neutral" granules (light pink or purple) single, multi-segmented nucleus (~3 lobes) three granule types (azurophilic, specific, tertiary) |
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neutrophil function
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kill bacteria
chemotactic signal -> specific & tertiary granule release -> degrade ECM to permit migration -> granule release to degrade bacteria -> phagocytose bacteria into phagosome |
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what are the three components of the glomerular filtration barrier?
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(1) glomerular capillary endothelium
(2) glomerular basement membrane (3) visceral layer of Bowman's capsule (podocytes) |
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what is the space between pedicles?
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filtration slit
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what is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule?
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65-70% Na+, H2O via AQP-1 channels, all glucose, amino acids, protein (<70kD), HCO3, K, Cl and PO4
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what is excreted from the proximal tubule?
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H ions, organic acids, bases
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what types of cells line the thick and thin portions of the loop of Henle?
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thick=cuboidal epithelium
thin=simple squamous epithelium |
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what are the "endocrine" functions of the kidney?
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secretion of renin, erythropoietin and activated vitamin D
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what is secreted and reabsorbed in the STRAIGHT portion of the distal tubule?
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impermeable to H2O
reabsorbed: Na, Cl, Ca, Mg, K, HCO3 secreted: H ions |
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what is secreted and reabsorbed in the CONVOLUTED portion of the distal tubule?
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reabsorbed: Na (aldosterone responsive), Cl, K, HCO3, H2O (ADH required)
secreted: K, urate, H ions, NH3 |
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what is a kidney lobe?
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a macroscopic subdivision consisting of a renal pyramid and its surrounding cortex
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what is a kidney lobule?
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a microscopic subdivision consisting of a medullary ray and the cortical tissue on either side
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what is the capsule of the kidney?
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consists mainly of fibrous connective tissue and surrounds kidney; the parenchyma is not subdivided by septa
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respiratory burst
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neutrophil releases hydrolytic enzymes into the phagosome; initiated by NADPH oxidase
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what does mutation of the NADPH oxidase gene cause?
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persistent bacterial infections
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eosinophil functions (2)
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(1) kill parasites
(2) phagocytize Ab:Ag complexes |
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what is the mechanism for asthma?
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leaukotrienes (products of arachidonic acid) recruit eosinophils to the lungs and induce them to manufacture more leukotrienes which cause:
(1) blood vessel leakiness -> edema (2) bronchiolar cells -> constrict (3) sero-mucous glands -> mucus |
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what is the tx for asthma?
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leukotriene receptor antagonists
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what specific granules are found in basophils?
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heparin & histamine
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anaphylactic shock
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second exposure to allergen may cause global release of specific granules by basophils resulting in:
(1) low blood volume (bv leakiness) (2) respiratory insufficiency (bronchial constriction) |
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function of monocytes
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(1) migrate into tissue and differentiate into tissue macrophages -> phagocytosis
(2) macrophages known as antigen-presenting cells present phagocytosed antigens to lymphocytes |
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T cells
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predominant in peripheral blood (~80%); types include:
(1) helper T cells (2) suppressor T cells (3) cytotoxic "killer" T cells: kill tumor cells, transplanted tissue, virus-infected cells |
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B cells
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differentiate into plasma cells -> release antibodies
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granulomere (platelet)
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central dark region with granules containing clotting factors and growth factors (PDGF)
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hyalomere
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peripheral light region containing parallel-arranged microtubules
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thrombocytopenia
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too few platelets (~50,000/ul)
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precursor to platelet
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megakaryocyte in bone marrow
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epitopes
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the parts of each antigen that are specifically recognized by receptors; usually peptides consisting of only a few amino acids
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antigen
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any molecule that is recognized by the immune system
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innate immune system
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comprised of phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) which directly kill, degrade and ingest pathogens
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adaptive immune system
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comprised of lymphocytes which kill pathogens via their highly specialized cell surface molecules
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B lymphocytes
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contain specific cell surface receptors that are ultimately secreted as antibodies (immunoglobulins) to confer 'humoral' immunity within body fluids
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T lymphocytes
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confer 'cell-mediated immunity' via specific cell-surface receptors that are never secreted
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what are the four biological features of adaptive immune cells?
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(1) diversity: B and T cells are amplified as diverse clones; each cell makes a specific antigen receptor
(2) specificity: each antigen receptor recognizes a specific epitope on the antigen of a pathogen (3) self-tolerance: antigen receptors that recognize 'self' are normally removed via apoptosis during development (4) memory: second and subsequent encounters between an antigen receptor and its specific antigen elicit a dramatic 'boost' |
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how many polypeptides make up antibodies?
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four (two identical 'heavy' chains ~50kD and two identical 'light' chains 25 kD); each heavy chain has 4-5 Ig domains and each light chain has 2 Ig domains
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variable region
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outermost region that binds antigens in a specific fashion; amino acid structure of the outermost Ig domain of both the heavy and light domain significantly varies between antibodies
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what does it mean that BCRs are bivalent?
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each BCR can bind two epitopes (as long as they are identical)
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what are the five subclasses of antibodies?
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IgD, IgE, IgG (monomers)
IgA (dimer) IgE (tetramer) |
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TCRs
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remain on the cell surface and are never secreted; comprised of two polypeptide chains (alpha and beta chain)
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what do helper T cells express?
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CD4
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what do cytotoxic T cells express?
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CD8
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MHC-I
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expressed by virtually all nucleated cells; "presents" foreign antigens of an invading microorganism, cell is killed following cytotoxic T cell activation; also presents "self" epitopes, which are normally ignored by the T cell
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MHC-II
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expressed only on antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, B lymphocytes); "presents" foreign epitopes only
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cytokines
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a group of proteins called interleukins secreted by helper T cells; "help" cells of the innate immune system kill pathogens; also induce B cells to differentiate into plasma cells and produce antibodies
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primary lymph organs
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liver, bone marrow, thymus
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secondary lymphatic organs
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lymph nodes
spleen diffuse lymphatic tissue (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue MALT and gut-associated lymphoid tissue GALT) |
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what is unique about the stroma in the thymus?
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the stroma consists of supportive cells (epithelial-reticular cells derived from endoderm) rather than connective tissue fibers
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what is the parenchyma of the thymus composed of?
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T cells and APCs (specifically macrophages and dendritic cells)
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thymic lobule
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subunit of thymus; each lobule has an outer thymic cortex and an inner thymic medulla (contain cellular compartments created by the cytoplasmic processes of the epithelial-reticular cells)
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what holds the cytoplasmic processes together?
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tight junctions that provide effective barriers against: (1) foreign antigens and (2) the blood vascular system; prevents premature activation of T cells during maturation
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lymphoid nodules in the cortex predominantly contain what kind of cells?
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B cells
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lymphoid nodules in the paracortex contain what kind of cells?
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T cells and APCs
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what are the two main functions of the spleen?
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(1) mount an immune response
(2) filter blood and re-cycle RBC components |
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neutrophil lifespan
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few days
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eosinophil lifespan
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<2 weeks
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basophil lifespan
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long-lived (~years)
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what is the largest WBC?
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monocyte (~15 um)
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monocyte lifespan
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few days in blood; several months in CT
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what kind of cells provide physical support in the bone marrow?
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mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs); can be thought of as specialized fibroblasts
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what kind of cells can multipotent stem cells differentiate into?
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endothelial cells, osteocytes, bone marrow adipose tissue, hematopoietic cells
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clusters of differentiation
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surface proteins on bone marrow cells and bone marrow products (allow differentiation b/t different bone marrow-derived cells types)
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how is typing of bone marrow cells performed?
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use monoclonal antibodies which specifically bind to a cognate cell surface receptor protein -> enables isolation and purification of bone marrow and bone-marrow derived cells using mAbs labeled with fluorescent signals, followed by "cell sorting" using an instrument called a fluorescent-activated cell sorter (FACS)
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how much of the total body mass is composed of bone marrow?
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5%
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site of hematopoiesis
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yolk sac blood islands (early embryo) -> liver -> "red marrow" (5th month of prenatal life)
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what is the daily demand of human bone marrow?
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100 billion new erythrocytes
10 billion new granulocytes 400 billion new platelets |
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colony forming units
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collection of progenitor cells that undergo clonal expansion in response to specific colony-stimulating factors
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colony-stimulating factors
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proteins that regulate the expansion of bone marrow progenitor cells
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stem cell factor (SCF)
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interacts with c-kit (on all hematopoietic precursors) -> restricts hematopoiesis to the 'stromal' cells in the bone marrow
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