Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
211 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
what is the purpose of mitosis?
|
cell development, growth and repair of tissues
|
|
|
in mitosis, parent and daughter cells are what
? |
identical unless there is a mutation
|
|
|
in a diploid, the daughter cells have the same?
|
# of chromosomes as the parent cell
|
|
|
what is the total # of chromosomes in humans?
|
46
|
|
|
this is the orderly set of stages that you can predict that occurs b/t the time a eukaryotic cell divides and the time that the cell's 2 daughters cells divide
|
The Cell Cycle
|
|
|
how many stages are in the cell cycle?
|
4
|
|
|
what are the 4 stages of the cell cycle?
|
G1
S G2 M |
|
|
90% of the time during hte cell cycle is spent here
|
interphase
|
|
|
what stages take place in interphase?
|
G1
S G2 |
|
|
what is the 1st step?
|
G1
|
|
|
what goes on in the 1st step at G1?
|
GROWTH and repair
production of more organelles |
|
|
in G1, if the DNA is damaged and can't be repaired what happens to it?
|
it undergoes APOPTOSIS
|
|
|
what is apoptosis?
|
programmed cell death
|
|
|
what is the 2nd step?
|
S
|
|
|
what hapens in the 2nd S step?
|
DNA REPLICATION
|
|
|
why is the S phase so important?
|
b/c it is where DNA replication occurs
|
|
|
what is the 3rd step?
|
G2
|
|
|
what happens in the 3rd step of G2?
|
final preparations for division
|
|
|
in the G2 phase what is hte preparation for division?
|
protein synthesis
|
|
|
where does protein synthesis occur?
|
3rd step - G2
|
|
|
What is G2 also called?
|
"mitosis checkpoint"
|
|
|
what is the next step after interphase is completed?
|
mitosis!!
|
|
|
what % of the time is spent in mitosis?
|
10%
|
|
|
how long does mitosis last for the organsim?
|
it's whole life span
|
|
|
where is the mitosis check point located?
|
after metaphase
|
|
|
what occurs at mitosis checkpoint?
|
centrosomes allign down the ceter, it is called the "spindle assembly checkpopint"
|
|
|
a duplicated chromosome contains:
|
- 2 sister chromatids
- each of these sister chromatids has copies of the same genes |
|
|
what joins the chromatids of the chromosome?
|
centromere
|
|
|
two chromatids side by side are called what?
|
sister chromatids
|
|
|
what attatches to the spindle fibers?
|
the kinetochore
|
|
|
what is the 1st phase of mitosis?
|
EARLY PROPHASE
|
|
|
what happens in EARLY PROPHASE?
|
- nucleolus disappears
- nuclear envelope is fragmenting |
|
|
whatis the 2nd phase of mitosis?
|
PROPHASE
|
|
|
what happens in PROPHASE?
|
- chromatids and centomere are created
- spindle fibers form |
|
|
what is the 3rd phase of mitosis?
|
PROMETAPHASE
|
|
|
what happens in PROMETAPHASE?
|
- the spindle fibers attatch to the kenetochores of each chromatid
- polar spindle fibers stretch and overlap |
|
|
what is the 4th phase of mitosis?
|
METAPHASE
|
|
|
what happens in METAPHASE?
|
- all centromeres are alligned
|
|
|
what is the 5th phase of mitosis?
|
ANAPHASE
|
|
|
what happens in ANAPHASE?
|
sister chromatids become daughter chromosomes and move toward the spindle poles
|
|
|
what is the final phase of mitosis?
|
TELOPHASE
|
|
|
what happens in TELOPHASE?
|
- new nuclei are produced
- spindle fibers vanish - daughter cells are formed |
|
|
what do stem cells always have the ability to do?
|
divide
|
|
|
where is a rich site of stem cells?
|
red bone marrow
|
|
|
even _____ has stem cells
|
body fat
|
|
|
during cancer, the cell cycle
|
flys out of control, hence mitosis is out of control
|
|
|
this is abnormal cell growth when you have this, you are forming a tumor
|
neoplasm
|
|
|
this type of tumor is encapsulated, it is still abnormal cell growth yet it isn't harmful
|
benign tumor
|
|
|
this type of tumor isn't encapsulated and it spreads out of control, it is cancerous
|
malignant tumor
|
|
|
this is a mutation of the genes of the regulatore of the cell cycle
|
cancer
|
|
|
what does genesis mean?
|
" formation of"
|
|
|
what is carcenogenesis?
|
the formation of cancer cells
|
|
|
normally every cell in the tissue has a job to preform and a purpose, but in carcenogenesis...
|
one cell is different and it has no job or purpose, so it just creates tumors
|
|
|
why isn't this "different cell" destroyed?
|
b/c it has an abnormal nuclei that makes them bipass apoptosis (programmed cell death)
|
|
|
if one was to say that hte cancer cell is mastastisized, what does that mean?
|
that the cancer cell is spreading
|
|
|
what is another origin of the cancer cell?
|
a faulty DNA repair system
|
|
|
mitosis is A-sexual
|
mitosis is A-sexual
|
|
|
what 2 organisms live in extrmem conditions and have A-sexual reproduction
|
bacteria and archea
|
|
|
in the growth factor, where are the external signals received?
|
at the plasma membrane
|
|
|
what do signal molecules do?
|
they either stimulate or inhibit molecular event
|
|
|
what are the 2 signal molecules?
|
stimulatory pathway
inhibitory pathway |
|
|
what do checkpoints do?
|
- prevent mutation
- are there for quality control |
|
|
what does the proto-oncogene do?
|
promotes the cell cycle producing more cell divison
- it deals with the stimulatory pathway |
|
|
what is the proto-oncgene called?
|
"gas pedal"
|
|
|
what does the tumor suppressor gene do?
|
slows down the cell division, it deals with the inhibitory pathway
|
|
|
what is the tumor suppressant gene called?
|
"break"
|
|
|
what are the 4 influences that cause mutated proto-oncogenes and suppressor genes?
|
heredity
radiation sources pesticides and herbicides viruses |
|
|
what are 2 prokaryotes?
|
bacteria and archea
|
|
|
what type of cell division does the prokaryotic bacteria and archea undergo?
|
binary fission
|
|
|
what is the function of the prokaryotic bacteria and archea?
|
A-sexual reproduction
|
|
|
what are 2 eukaryotes?
|
protists and some fungi
|
|
|
what type of cell division does the eukaryotic protists and fungi undergo?
|
mitosis and cytokinesis
|
|
|
what type of cell division does the eukaryotic plants and animals undergo?
|
mitosis and cytokinesis
|
|
|
what is the function of eukaryotic plants and animals?
|
development
growth repair |
|
|
binary fission
|
division that produces two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell
|
|
|
what are the simple steps of binary fission?
|
1- DNA replicates
2- cell lengthens 3- the 2 chromosomes seperate 4- the cells become divided 5- result is 2 identical cells |
|
|
what is the purpose of Meiosis?
|
sexual reproduction, for continuing the species
|
|
|
what does a haploid consist of?
|
23 pairs of chromosomes
23=n |
|
|
what does a diploid consist of?
|
46 pairs of chromosomes
46=2n |
|
|
in Meiosis, you start with what?
|
2 Gametes (sperm + egg cell)
|
|
|
in Meiosis, what do the 2 gametes fuze to form?
|
a zygote
|
|
|
how many nuclear divisions occur in meiosis?
|
2
|
|
|
in diploid body cells, chromosomes occur in pairs called what?
|
homologous pairs
|
|
|
explain a homologous pair
|
you can have genes for the same trait, but have different applications such as both applications are for hair,but one can be blonde and one can be brown
|
|
|
what are alternate forms of the same gene ?
such as red hair:black hair |
allels
|
|
|
what occurs first during meiosis 1?
|
the homologous chromosomes pair up
|
|
|
what occurs second during meiosis 1?
|
nuceloprotein lattice develops b/t the chromosomes
|
|
|
what does the nucleoprotein lattice do?
|
it zippers the members of the bivalent together so that corresponding genes are in allignment
|
|
|
what do Chiasmata indicate?
|
where crossing over has occured
|
|
|
what happens when the chromatids cross over?
|
they exchange genetic material
|
|
|
in what way do the genetic materials swap?
|
randomly
|
|
|
what does the random swap promote?
|
variation in specific traits
|
|
|
what is a bivalent?
|
a pair of chromosomes
|
|
|
In Meiosis 1 ... what is the first phase?
|
prophase 1
|
|
|
what happens in prophase 1?
|
Homologous chromosomes pair during synapsis and crossing-over occurs
|
|
|
what is synapsis?
|
the forming of a homologous pair
|
|
|
In Meiosis 1 ... what is the second phase?
|
Metaphase 1
|
|
|
what happens in metaphase 1?
|
homologous pairs allign, there are bivalent pairs
|
|
|
In Meiosis 1, what is the third phase?
|
Anaphase 1
|
|
|
wat happens in Anaphase 1?
|
homolgous pairs seperate
|
|
|
In Meiosis 1, what is the fourth phase?
|
Telophase 1
|
|
|
what happens in Telophase 1?
|
there are 2 distinctie nuclei
|
|
|
In Meiosis 1, what is the final phase?
|
Interkinesis
|
|
|
what happens in Interkinesis?
|
there are 2 cells
n=2 n=2 |
|
|
what is another name for Interkinesis?
|
"cytokinesis"
|
|
|
In Meiosis II, what is the first phase?
|
Prophase II
|
|
|
what happens in prophase II?
|
the envelope is breaking down, cells have one chromosome from each homologous pair
|
|
|
In Meiosis II, what is the second phase?
|
Metaphase II
|
|
|
what happens in Metaphase II?
|
chromosomes allign in single file (going down)
|
|
|
In Meiosis II, what is the third phase?
|
Anaphase II
|
|
|
what happens in Anaphase II?
|
Sister chromatids seperate and become daughter chromosomes
|
|
|
In Meiosis II, what is the fourth phase?
|
Telophase II
|
|
|
what happens in Telophase II?
|
spindles disappear
nuclei form cytokinesis takes place |
|
|
what is the final result of Meiosis II ?
|
4 haploid daughter clls
|
|
|
how do we form gametes?
|
by meiosis
|
|
|
what is produced after Mitosis?
Meiosis? |
Mitosis = 2 haloid cells
Meiosis = 4 haploid cells |
|
|
meiosis keeps the chromosome # ________
|
constant
|
|
|
Meiosis promotes______________
|
genetic variation
|
|
|
wat is the general term for the process of "crossing over" and "swapping genetic material"?
|
Genetic Recombination
|
|
|
what does Genetic Recombination cause?
|
variation in specific traits , it is a random swap!!
|
|
|
what is independant assortment?
|
homologous pairs seperate randomly,
8 million possible variations!! |
|
|
what are the fertilization stats?
|
take the 8 milion possibilities from independant assortment and square it (5x10^27) - extremely large number!
|
|
|
howmany diploid cells does Mitosis have?
Meiosis? |
Mitosis = 2 diploid cells
Meiosis = 4 haploid cells |
|
|
Mitosis daughter cells are _______ to the parent, Meiosis daughter cells are ______ to the parent.
|
Mitosis = idetical to parent
Meiosis = different from parent |
|
|
how many nuclear divisions in Mitosis?
Meiosi? |
Mitosis = 1 nuclear division
Meiosis = 2 nuclear divisions |
|
|
what are Meiosis's 2 nuclear divisions called?
|
Meiosis I
Meiosis II |
|
|
what type of function does Mitosis have? Meiosis?
|
Mitosis = A-sexual
Meiosis = sexual |
|
|
how many chromosome pais does Mitosis have? Meiosis?
|
Mitosis = 46
Meiosis = 23 |
|
|
what is the difference in how animals and plants have sexual reproduction?
|
in animals and plants...
-haploid forms spores -zygote is produced(diploid) -the generations go like this: haploid,diploid,haploid,diploid |
|
|
Meiosis = haploid (n)
|
Mitosis = diploid (2n)
|
|
|
Mitosis occurs all life long time
|
Meiosis occurs only during child bearing age in females 9 selective)
|
|
|
What is the purpose of Mitosis?
|
growth and repair of tissues
|
|
|
What is the purpose of Meiosis?
|
reproduction
|
|
|
what is the difference between the Metaphase of Mitosis and the Metaphase I of Meiosis?
|
Metaphase (Mitosis) = the chromosomes line up like this
X X X X Metaphase I (Meosis) = the chromosomes line up like this X X X X |
|
|
what is the difference between the anaphase of Mitosis and the anaphase I of Meiosis?
|
anaphase (Mitosis) = the sister chromatids separate and become daughter chromosomes
anaphase I (Meosis) = the homologous pairs separate and move towards poles |
|
|
WHat does Spermatogenesis produce?
|
4 viable sperm
|
|
|
what does oogenesis produce?
|
one egg and at least 2 polar bodies
|
|
|
In humans, both sperm and egg each have 23 chromosomes, so following fertilization the zygote has 46 chromosomes
|
In humans, both sperm and egg each have 23 chromosomes, so following fertilization the zygote has 46 chromosomes
|
|
|
who was the man that did experiments in large numbers?
|
Gregor MENDEL
|
|
|
what are MENDEL's 2 "claims to fame"?
|
- Particulate Theory of Inheritance
- Law of Segregation |
|
|
what is the basic idea behind the ancient "Blending Concept of Inheritance" ?
|
that if you crossed a red and whie flower you would always get a pink flower outcome
|
|
|
what is the idea behnd the " Particulate Theory of Inheritence" ?
|
-reshuffling of same genes
-basic hereditary unit is the gene |
|
|
what is the basic heredity unit?
|
the gene
|
|
|
What is the basic idea behind the "Law of Segregation" ?
|
-separation of the trais ( not just pink flower outcomes, some could be all white or all red) they weren't all blended into pink
|
|
|
these are alternate forms of the gene that controls a specific trait (such as tall or short)
|
alleles
|
|
|
what are the 2 types of alleles?
|
Dominant and Recessive
|
|
|
what does the Dominant look like?
|
TT or Tt
(they are both "tall plants") |
|
|
what does the recessive look like?
|
tt
("short plant") |
|
|
what does Homozygous mean?
|
"same/balance"
|
|
|
what does Heterozygous mean?
|
"mixed/different"
|
|
|
what does Homozygous look like?
|
TT or tt
|
|
|
what does Heterozygous look like?
|
Tt
|
|
|
where is a genotype foun?
|
a plant
|
|
|
what does the genotype show?
|
it shows the gene that is ACTUALLY THERE
|
|
|
example of Genotype:
|
Tt TT
( they are both tall but the genotype shows wha they actually are) |
|
|
where is the Phenotype seen in?
|
humans
|
|
|
what is the phenotype?
|
the outter appearance ( it's either dominant or recessive
|
|
|
example of Phenotype:
|
all you see is a tall plant, you know it's Dominant, but you can't see whether it was TT or Tt ( the phenotype is only what you can see)
|
|
|
in thi punnett square;
E e ---------------- E - EE Ee - e - Ee ee what is the ratio of Homozygous dominant:Heterozygous:homozygous recessive?? |
1:2:1
EE : Ee,Ee : ee |
|
|
wat does a one trait test cross look like?
|
e e
============= E Ee Ee e ee ee (4^n = 4^1) |
|
|
what does a Dihybrid cross look like?
|
AB Ab aB ab
============================== AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb |
|
|
what are the possible phenotypes and genotypes for the bloodtypes?
|
A IAIA, IAi
B IBIB, IBi AB IAIB O ii |
|
|
what is an autosome?
|
any chromsome that is nota sexchromosome
|
|
|
humans have 22 chromosomal pairs and 1 sex pair ( xx
xy ) |
humans have 22 chromosomal pairs and 1 sex pair ( xx
xy ) |
|
|
what does Autosomal Dominant look like?
|
AA or Aa
|
|
|
what does autosomal recessive look like?
|
aa
|
|
|
what are he autosomal recessive diseases?
|
Tay Sachs
cystic fibrosis phenylketonuria sickle cell disease |
|
|
what makes sickle cell disease different from all the other autosomal recessive disease?
|
you can be in the "trait" zone, but still not have the full blown disease
|
|
|
this is when one genetic change affects more then one characteristic of a person
|
pleiotropy
|
|
|
what is an example of pleiotropy?
|
sickle cell disease
|
|
|
what is the carrier??
|
the heterozygous autosomla recessive, they don't have the disease but they carry it
|
|
|
Tay Sachs is an
|
enzyme defficiency in children
|
|
|
wha is prevelence?
|
total # in population
|
|
|
what is incidence?
|
new cases per year
|
|
|
what is the autosomal dominant disease?
|
Huntington disease
|
|
|
what does huntington disease have?
|
a delayed onset ( it is deterioraing brain cells)
|
|
|
what is it called when the red and the white flower actually did make the pink flower
|
Incomplete Dominance
|
|
|
what is the most common type of multiple allelic traits?
|
blood typing
|
|
|
this is when 2 allels team up and share dominance
|
codominance
|
|
|
what is a blood type example of codominance
|
AB
|
|
|
this inheritance has many degrees and choices
|
polygenic inheritance
|
|
|
what is polygenic inheritance's specific traits controlled by?
|
enviroment and 2 or more allels
|
|
|
what is the example given of polygenic inheritance?
|
skin tone
|
|
|
what is the polygenic disorder
|
when a person inherits a TENDANCY, not a certainty
|
|
|
what does the polygenic disorder deal with?
|
genotype and enviroment
|
|
|
what are examples of polygenic disorders?
|
hypertension, diabetes, caner
|
|
|
what are x-linked disorders?
|
genes carried on the x chromosome
|
|
|
who are the main carriers of the x-linked disorders?
|
the females ( XX ) -males are XY
|
|
|
what do the x-linked disorders have to deal with?
|
the 23 rd chromosome
|
|
|
what are some of the x-linked disorders?
|
color blind
muscle distrophy hemophelia fragile x syndrome which is the 2nd leading cause of mental retardaion |
|
|
what is the ide behind gene linkage?
|
that genes can be inheritd together becaus they are linked together in the "linkge group"
|
|
|
what are the causes of offspring variaton?
|
- crossing over
- recombination of chromosomes during meiosis - gamete possibilities at fertilization - chromosomal mutations |
|
|
what about crossing over?
|
during early prophase, the genes can be locate4d, they coss over
|
|
|
what about recombination of chromosomes during meiosis?
|
chromatids go in diff. directions, there is a separation of the chrom. and the recombine
|
|
|
what about gamete possibilities at fertilization?
|
the particular sperm meets the particular egg
|
|
|
what about chromosomal mutations?
|
1- changing of number of chomosomes
2- changing of the structre of chromosomes |
|
|
euploidy =
|
correct # of chromosomes
|
|
|
polyploidy =
|
greater than or equal to 3 whole extra sets of chromosome (1-22)
|
|
|
what is polyploidy common in?
|
plants
|
|
|
what is aneuploidy?
|
any abnormal increase or decrease of the # of chromosomes
|
|
|
what is monosomy?
|
missing one chromosome
|
|
|
what is trisomy?
|
an extra chromosome is present
|
|
|
trisomy-21 =
|
down syndrom on the 21st chromosome
|
|
|
Turner syndrome =
|
in females, missing an X chromosome
|
|
|
Klinefelter syndrome =
|
males, has an extra X chromosome
|
|
|
all autosomal chromosomes are correct, it is the sex chromosome that disease stems from
|
all autosomal chromosomes are correct, it is the sex chromosome that disease stems from
|
|
|
what are the 3 causes of change in the structure of chromosomes?
|
-radiation
-chemical exposure -virus |
|
|
what is deletion?
|
missing gene on one or more chromosome
|
|
|
wht is duplication?
|
repeating same gene sequence on same chromosome
|
|
|
what is inversion?
|
upside down gene sequence
|
|
|
what is translocation?
|
moving gene sequence to non-homologous chromosome ( moved from one chromatid to a cmpletely different one
|
