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143 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
-specific cells have receptors embedded in the _ _ (_ _) or located in the _ (_)
-plasma membrane; cell membrane
-cytoplasm; cytosol
-each receptor type has a _ _
-each will only bind to a specific _ _ (_)
-similar principal to that of _ _ in the immune system
-specific shape
-signal molecule; LIGAND
-clonal selection
-in most cases, the ligand never _ _
-first step in the non-ion channel receptor is the _ _ of _ _ molecules
-enters cell
-enzymatic production; intracellular signal
-intracellular signal molecules are generically referred to as _ _
-second messengers acts to _ _ _
-second messangers
-regulate subsequent pathway
-most other intermediates (or _ _) in pathway are _
-a common mode of enzyme activation is _
-relay molecules; enzymes
-PHOSPHORYLATION
-phosphorylation produces a _ _ of enzyme _ yielding great _ of pathway
-biochemical cascade; activation; amplication
-response is change (_ or _) in _ or _ processes
-increase; decrease
-cytoplasmic; nuclear
-specificity of the response is assured b/c not every cell has every _ and b/c cells with the _ _ can respond _ due to the differences in _ of the _ _
-receptor
-same receptors; differently; enzymes; response pathway
-endrocrine glands secrete _ that alter the _ of _ _
-endocrine glands have no _, are composed primarily of _ cells, and secrete _
-hormones; activity; distant cells
-ducts; epithelial; hormones
-hormones in endocrine glands are typically _, _, _, or _
-polypeptide; protein; amine; steroid
-ex. of a polypeptide in endocrine system is _
-protein is _
-amine i s_
-steroid is_, _ , or _
-endorphin
-insulin
-epinephrine
-testosterone, estrogen, cortisol
-hormones is the endocrine glands act as _ and _ to specific receptors, eliciting _ _
-ligands; bind; specific responses
-hypothalsmic pituitary axis represents the closest interaction b/w the _ _ and the _ _
-nervous system; endocrine system
-2 parts of pituitary gland:
1.Anterior Hypophysis
2.Posterior Hypophysis
-posterior lobe of the pituitary gland develops as a _ (or _) of the floor of the _ (* the _)
-anterior lobe derived from the _ _
-downgrowth; extension
-floor; hypothalamus
-digestive tract
-_ that regulate activity of anterior and posterior lobes of pituitary gland originate in the _
-neurons; hypothalamus
-in the posterior lobe of pituitary gland, neurons pass through _ *(_) directly into posterior lobe
-infundibulum; stalk
-for the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, neurons _ near the _ _
-terminate; capillary bed
2 secretions of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland:
1.ADH (AntiDiuretic Hormone)
2.Oxytocin
-ADH regulates _ _ by _
-oxytocin regulates _ _ during _ and the secretion of _ by _ _
-0water reabsorption; kidneys
-uterine contractions; birth
-milk; mammary glands
-anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes _
-the thyroid gland is located on the _ surface of the _
-
-TSH
-ventral; trachea
-3 hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND:
1.Triiodothyronine (T3).
2.Tetraiodothyronine (T4)
3.Calcitonin
-T3 & T4 have functions in _ & _
-T3 & T4 maintain _ _, _ _, _ _, _ and _ functions
-development; maturation
-blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestion; reproductive functions
-T3 & T4 regulate _ levels as measured in _ _
-metabolic; oxygen consumption
-neurons in hypothalamus secrete _ (_-_: _ _ _ _ _)
-TRH
-TSH-TRH
-Thyroid Stimulation Hormone- Thyroid Releasing Hormone
-TRH stimulates cells in _ _ to secrete _ (_ _ _)
-TSH levels in blood _
-anterior pituitary; TSH
-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
-increase
-T3 n T4 also act as _ _ of TRH
-normal (setpoint) level of blood Calcium (Ca) is about _ _/_ _
-feedback inhibitors
-10 mg/100 ml
-the thyroid works in conjunction with the _ to maintain proper levels of _
-pancreas is located in the _ _ & lays along side the _ _ _
-parathyroid; calcium
-abdominal cavity
-upper small intestines
-the pancreas has both _ and _ functions
-endocrine cells are clustered together forming _ among _ cells
-exocrine; endocrine
-ISLETS; exocrine
-2 islets of langerhans cell types:
1.Alpha cells
2.Beta cells
-alpha cells secrete _
-beta cells secrete _
-GLUCAGON
-INSULIN
-balance of _ and _ maintains proper levels of _ _ in blood
-glucagon; insulin; circulating glucose
-GLUCAGON stimulates _ cells to _ _
-secretion of alpha cells increases when _ _ _ begins to _ too _
-liver; breakdown glycogen
-blood glucose levels; decrease; low
-INSULIN stimulates _, _, and most other cells to take in _ from blood
-secretion by beta cells increases when blood glucose level _ _ _
-liver; muscle; glucose
-increases too high
-in homeostasis, blood sugar level remains relatively _ (~_ _/ _ _)
-theres constant turnover of _ _ in blood
-constant
-90mg/100ml
-glucose molecules
-cells must communicate to remain _ and so that events and processes will be _
-orderly; coordinated
-the ultimate goal of orderly n coordinated activities is _ _
-REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS
-2 ways of cell communication by direct contact b/w cells is _ _ (_ _ in animal cells and _ in plant cells) & _-_ _
-cell junctions; gap junctions; plasmodesmata
-cell-cell recognition
-both plants n animal cells have cell junctions that allows _ to pass readily b/w _ cells without _ _ _
-molecules; adjacent
-crossing plasma membrane
-cell-cell recognition in when _ cells in an _ communicate by interaction b/w _ _ from their _
-2; animals; molecules protruding; surfaces
-paracrine signaling is when a secreting cell acts on nearby _ _ by _ molecules of a _ _ (a growth factor for example) into the _ _
-target cells; discharging; local regulator; extracellular fluid
-synaptic signaling is when a _ cell releases _ molecules into a _, stimulating the _ _
-nerve; neurotransmitter
-synapse; target cell
-hormonal signaling is when specialized _ cells secrete homrones into _ _, often the _
-hormones may reach virtually _ _ _
-endocrine; body fluids; blood
-all body cells
-3 steps in cell signaling:
1.Reception
2.Transduction
3.Response
-the _ molecule binds with the _ which goes into the _ of the cell and performs _ (_ molecules in a _ _ _) which activates a _ _
-signal; receptor; cytoplasm; transduction; (relay; transduction pathway)
-cellular response
-_ is an example of cell signaling b/c it activates _ _ which results in the activation of _ and other enzymes which leads to _ _
-another example would be the activation of _ and _ cells, an _ response or the control of _ and _ _
-auxin; proton pumping; expansin; cell elongation
-T; B; allergic; breathing; heart rate
-CYTOPLASMIC RECEPTORS bind _ _ _
-Membrane-bound receptors bind _ _ _ molecules
-steroid signal molecules
-water soluble signal
-3 types of membrane-bound receptors:
1.G-protein-linked receptors
2.Tyrosine Kinase receptors
3.Ion Channel receptors
-the steroid hormone testosterone passes through the _ _
-testosterone binds to a _ _ in the _, activating it
-the hormone-receptor complex enters the _ and binds to specific _
-the bound protein stimulates the _ of the gene into _
-the _ is _ into a specific _
-plasma membrane
-receptor protein; cytoplasm
-nucleus; genes
-transcription; mRNA
-mRNA; translated; protein
-_ _ (aka _) is a second messenger is a G-protein-signaling pathway
-Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE
1. A _ molecule activates _ _ _
-relay; protein kinase 1
PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE
2. active protein kinase 1 transfers a _ from _ to an _ molecule of * _ _ _, thus activating this _ _
3. active protein kinase 2 then catalyzes the _ (and _) of _ _ _
4. Finally, the active protein kinase 3 phosphorylates a _ (_) that brings about the cell's _ to the signal
-phosphate; ATP; inactive
-PROTEIN KINASE 2
-2nd kinase
-phosphoylation; activation; PROTEIN KINASE 3
-protein (pink); response
PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE
5. Enzymes called _ _ (_) catalyze the removal of the _ _ from the proteins, making them _ and available for _
-Protein Phosphatases (PP)
-phosphate groups; inactive; reuse
-the stimulation of glycogen breakdown by _ is an example of a _ _ to a signal
-epinephrine; CYTOPLASMIC RESPONSE
-one chemical signal can have many _ _ depending on _ _ and type of _
-different effects; cell type; receptors
-T4 has 4 _ atoms
-T3 has _ _ atoms
-T3 is a more _ form of _
-iodine
-3 iodine
-active; thyroxine
-T3 & T4 are specialized _ _
-thyroid gland secretes 2 enzymes- _ & _
-amino acids
-T3 & T4
-thyroid gland is in control of the _ _
-When the level of thyroid hormones (_ & _) drops too low, the _ _produces _ _ _ (_) which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce more _ & _
-pituitary gland
-T3 & T4; pituitary gland
-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
-T3 & T4
-The hypothalamus is part of the brain and produces _ _ _ (_) which tells the _ _ to stimulate the thyroid gland to release _
-Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH); pituitary gland
-TSH
-the function of the thyroid gland is to take _, _ found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones _ (_) & _ (_)
-iodine; salt
-thyroxine (T4);
-triiodothyronine (T3).
-TSH is produced in the _ system and is transported through the _ _
-endocrine; systemic system
-T3 & T4 binding to cells in _ _ _ and _ _ have an inhibiting effect (_ _ _)
-_ is an exceedingly impt. mineral in the blood
-anterior pituitary gland; Hypothalamus neurons
-calcium
-PTH is the _ _
-if theres a deficit of calcium in blood, body gets it from _
-calcium is constantly _ and _ _ cells
-ParaThyroid Hormone
-bone
-entering; leaving bone
-if calcium level rises, _ cells secrete _, response seen in _
-calcotonin stimulates _ _ in _ & reduces _ _ in _
-thyroid; ccalcitonin; liver
-calcium deposition; bones
-calcium uptake; kidneys
-deficit of calcium stimulates the release of the _ _ (_)
-
-Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
-PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) stimulates _ _ from _ and stimulates _ _ in _
-calcium release; bones
-calcium uptake; kidneys
-we need _ _ to digest calcium in digestive tract
-_ cells are panreatic cells
-vitamin d
-acinan
-ANCINAN cells are _ % _ or _ in nature and _ % endocrine
-90; exocrine; digestive
-10
-endocrine secretions go to the _ _
-_ & _ play a major role in _ _ of glucose in blood
-extracellular space
-insulin; glucagon; homeostatic balance
-glucagon n insulin have _ _
-small intestines breaks down starch to _
-high blood glucose levels for a long period of time lead to _
-contrary effects
-disaccharides
-diabetes
-diabetes happens when _ _ is stopped or cells _ _ to insulin
-insulin production; stop responding
-there are many more _ than arteries
-capillary diameter about the size of _ _ _
-arterioles
-red blood cell
-degree of constriction or dilation of arterioles is controlled by the _ _
-capillaries are a single layer of _
-_ number of capillaries ensures that most cells are no more than _ _ from a source of _
-nervous system
-epithelium
-large; 80 micrometers; blood
-compared to arteries and arterioles, veins and venules have a much _ _, and _ _
-wider lumen; thinner walls
-blood flows towards the heart under very _ _
-each heart contraction takes about _ _
-low pressure
-0.85 seconds
-SYSTOLE refers to the _ of a chamber
-DIASTOLE refers to a period of _ b.w. _
-contraction
-relaxation; contractions
-cardia cycle is a _ _ _
-_ blood enters the right atrium
via the _ and _ _ _
- 2 stroke pump
-deoxy; superior; inferior vena cava
-_ blood enters the left atirum via the _ _
-oxygenated; pulmonary veins
stroke # 1: contraction of _ forces blood into the _
stroke # 2: contraction of the _ sends blood into the _ _
-atria; ventricles
-ventricles; major arteries
-contraction of the heart is _
-electrical signal from the _ _ induces the contraction of L n R atrium
-intrinsic
-SA NODE
-SA node signal reaches specialized _ _ at the base of the _ _ called the _ (_) _
-cardiac muscle; right atrium
-AtrioVentricular (AV) Node
-abnormal EKGs help diagnose _ of the cardiac problem
-brain sends nerve impulses to heart via the _ _ _
-location
-autnomic nervous system
stroke # 1: contraction of _ forces blood into the _
stroke # 2: contraction of the _ sends blood into the _ _
-atria; ventricles
-ventricles; major arteries
-in aorta n major arteries and arterioles the blood flow is _, _, and pressure is _
-high; pulsatile; high
-capillaries have the greatest _-_ _
-flow rate increases in _ but pressure continues to _
-cross-sectional area
-veins; decrease
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can diminish flow to a region
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can _ _ to a region
-contraction; smooth muscles
-relaxation; smooth muscles; increase flow
-_-_ _ can shunt flow through a capillary bed
-precapillary sphincters can bypass most capillaries via a _ _
-pre-capillary sphincters
-thoroughfare channel
-at the arterial end of the capillary there is greater _ _ than _ _
-the net pressure to force _ _ of the capillary is _ _
-hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure
-plasma out; 10 mm
-venous end of the capillary draws _ _ _
-this is because there is greater _ _ than there is _ _
-plasma into capillary
-osmotic pressure; hydrostatic pressure
-contraction of the heart is _
-electrical signal from the _ _ induces the contraction of L n R atrium
-intrinsic
-SA NODE
-SA node signal reaches specialized _ _ at the base of the _ _ called the _ (_) _
-cardiac muscle; right atrium
-AtrioVentricular (AV) Node
-abnormal EKGs help diagnose _ of the cardiac problem
-brain sends nerve impulses to heart via the _ _ _
-location
-autnomic nervous system
-in aorta n major arteries and arterioles the blood flow is _, _, and pressure is _
-high; pulsatile; high
-capillaries have the greatest _-_ _
-flow rate increases in _ but pressure continues to _
-cross-sectional area
-veins; decrease
stroke # 1: contraction of _ forces blood into the _
stroke # 2: contraction of the _ sends blood into the _ _
-atria; ventricles
-ventricles; major arteries
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can diminish flow to a region
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can _ _ to a region
-contraction; smooth muscles
-relaxation; smooth muscles; increase flow
-_-_ _ can shunt flow through a capillary bed
-precapillary sphincters can bypass most capillaries via a _ _
-pre-capillary sphincters
-thoroughfare channel
-at the arterial end of the capillary there is greater _ _ than _ _
-the net pressure to force _ _ of the capillary is _ _
-hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure
-plasma out; 10 mm
-venous end of the capillary draws _ _ _
-this is because there is greater _ _ than there is _ _
-plasma into capillary
-osmotic pressure; hydrostatic pressure
-contraction of the heart is _
-electrical signal from the _ _ induces the contraction of L n R atrium
-intrinsic
-SA NODE
-SA node signal reaches specialized _ _ at the base of the _ _ called the _ (_) _
-cardiac muscle; right atrium
-AtrioVentricular (AV) Node
-abnormal EKGs help diagnose _ of the cardiac problem
-brain sends nerve impulses to heart via the _ _ _
-location
-autnomic nervous system
-in aorta n major arteries and arterioles the blood flow is _, _, and pressure is _
-high; pulsatile; high
-capillaries have the greatest _-_ _
-flow rate increases in _ but pressure continues to _
-cross-sectional area
-veins; decrease
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can diminish flow to a region
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can _ _ to a region
-contraction; smooth muscles
-relaxation; smooth muscles; increase flow
-_-_ _ can shunt flow through a capillary bed
-precapillary sphincters can bypass most capillaries via a _ _
-pre-capillary sphincters
-thoroughfare channel
-at the arterial end of the capillary there is greater _ _ than _ _
-the net pressure to force _ _ of the capillary is _ _
-hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure
-plasma out; 10 mm
-venous end of the capillary draws _ _ _
-this is because there is greater _ _ than there is _ _
-plasma into capillary
-osmotic pressure; hydrostatic pressure
-heart attacks kill someone every _ second in US
-O2 is provided by the _ _
-is necessary for _ _ and too little will inhibit _ _
-72
-respiratory medium
-aerobic respiration; cell metabolism
-CO2 is produced as a result of _ _
-too much will _ _ and _ _
-aerobic respiration
-acidify cytoplasm; extracellular spaces
-excess CO2 is transported to the _ _
-all gases must be _ in _ to enter/leave cell
-respiratory medium
-dissolved; water
-since O2 content of water is lower than that of air, gills are required to be _
-air is _ _ than water therefore less _ is used in _
-ventilated
-less dense; energy; ventilation
-lungs evolved in _, _ _, and _
-_ _ n _ controls breathing rate (located in _)
-spiders, terrestrial snails, vertebrates
-0medulla oblongata; pons; brain
-medulla responds to _ _ in _ _
-blood pH is affected by _ _
-when pH drops too low, due to buildup of _, stimulates _ _
-small changes; blood pH
-CO2 levels
-CO2; Breathing center
-as CO2 is transferred to air from lungs (and blood), pH _
-control of breathing is relatively insensitive to _ _
-rises
-O2 levels
-special tissue in _ and _ _ are stimulated when O2 drops to extremely low levels
-Oxygen is transported by _ _
-aorta; carotid arteries
-respiratory pigments
-respiratory pigments are needed for the _ of O2 b/c Oxygen is not very _ in _ (_)
-transportation; soluble; water; plasma
-respiratory pigments such as _ n _ bind much more O2
-this increases the _ _ for O2 of _
-Hemoglobin; Cyanoglobin
-carrying capacity; blood
-each rbc contains about _ molecules of hemoglobin
-O2 binds to _ co-factor (_) which is located in hemoglobin _
-200
-metal; iron; protein
-CO2 produced by cells _ into _ _ and then into _
-diffusion over large distances is _ _
-diffuses; interstitial fluid; plasma
-too slow
-function of the immune system is to _ n _ _ _
-foreign substances include (4);
-recognize; reject foreign substances
1.Bacteria
2.Viruses
3.Tissues
4.Allergens
-recognition of foreign substances by the immune system occurs at the _ _
-molecular level
- _ (_) is a molecule that stimulates the immune system
-immune system is principally located in these 3 areas:
-Antigen; AG
1.Connectice Tissue Spaces
2.Blood System
3.Lymphatic System
-immune system located in _ organs
-white blood cells called _
-2 main types of white blood cells :
-lymphoid
-leukocytes
1.Granulocytes
2.Agranulocytes
-granulocytes contain _, _ limited vesicles called _
-large; membrane
-GRANULES
-antigens are usually _ can be _ and may contain _ (or _)
-immune system is distributed throughout the _ associated with _ _
-proteins; carbs; polysaccharides; glycoproteins
-body; lymphatic system
-lymphatic organs are responsible for making _ _ _
-immune system connects all _ _
-immune system cells
-lymphatic organs
-a process called _ is used to see contents of blood
-rbc's are called _
-centrifuge
-ERYTHROCYTES
-rbc's transport _ and help transport _
-leukocytes function in _ and _
-O2; CO2
-defense; immunity
-3 types of granulocyte leukocytes:
(in order from most to least granules)
1.Neutrophils
2.Eosinophils
3.Basophils
-agranulocytes contain very _ _
-2 types of agranulocytes:
-small vesicles
1.Monocytes
2.Lymphocytes
-2 types of lymphocytes:
1.T-CELLS
2.B-CELLS
-platelets are responsible for _ _
-lymphocytes (t-cells & b-cells) circulate in _ _
-blood clotting
-connective tissues
-albumin is a _ protein produced by the _ & creates _ _
-plasma; liver; hydrostatic pressure
-prevalent component of blood is :
-_ cells are only located in CT
-red blood cells
-Mast
-Immune cells in CT:
1.Lymphocytes
2.Macrophages
3.Mast Cells
4.Natural Killer (NK) cells (dendritic cells)
-innate non-specific immune defenses include these barriers:
1.Skin
2.Mucus
3.Secretions
2 antimicrobial proteins:
1.Complement
2.Interferons
-damage to _ and cells in _ causes release of inflammatory agents
-_ & _ cause capillaries to dialate and become very _
-capillaries; CT
-Bradykinin; Histamine
-permeable
-_ and _ squeeze THru capillaries n enter in _ _ _
-monocytes differentiate into _
-Neurophils; Monocytes
-connective tissue spaces
-MACROPHAGES
-2 special properties of specific/acquired immune responses:
1.Specificity
2.Memory
-lymphocytes are derived from _ _ in _ _
-stem cells; lymphoid organs
-cells need to comunicate in order to keep things in _
-cells communicate by _ _
-order
-sending signals