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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
-specific cells have receptors embedded in the _ _ (_ _) or located in the _ (_)
|
-plasma membrane; cell membrane
-cytoplasm; cytosol |
|
-each receptor type has a _ _
-each will only bind to a specific _ _ (_) -similar principal to that of _ _ in the immune system |
-specific shape
-signal molecule; LIGAND -clonal selection |
|
-in most cases, the ligand never _ _
-first step in the non-ion channel receptor is the _ _ of _ _ molecules |
-enters cell
-enzymatic production; intracellular signal |
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-intracellular signal molecules are generically referred to as _ _
-second messengers acts to _ _ _ |
-second messangers
-regulate subsequent pathway |
|
-most other intermediates (or _ _) in pathway are _
-a common mode of enzyme activation is _ |
-relay molecules; enzymes
-PHOSPHORYLATION |
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-phosphorylation produces a _ _ of enzyme _ yielding great _ of pathway
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-biochemical cascade; activation; amplication
|
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-response is change (_ or _) in _ or _ processes
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-increase; decrease
-cytoplasmic; nuclear |
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-specificity of the response is assured b/c not every cell has every _ and b/c cells with the _ _ can respond _ due to the differences in _ of the _ _
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-receptor
-same receptors; differently; enzymes; response pathway |
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-endrocrine glands secrete _ that alter the _ of _ _
-endocrine glands have no _, are composed primarily of _ cells, and secrete _ |
-hormones; activity; distant cells
-ducts; epithelial; hormones |
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-hormones in endocrine glands are typically _, _, _, or _
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-polypeptide; protein; amine; steroid
|
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-ex. of a polypeptide in endocrine system is _
-protein is _ -amine i s_ -steroid is_, _ , or _ |
-endorphin
-insulin -epinephrine -testosterone, estrogen, cortisol |
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-hormones is the endocrine glands act as _ and _ to specific receptors, eliciting _ _
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-ligands; bind; specific responses
|
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-hypothalsmic pituitary axis represents the closest interaction b/w the _ _ and the _ _
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-nervous system; endocrine system
|
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-2 parts of pituitary gland:
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1.Anterior Hypophysis
2.Posterior Hypophysis |
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-posterior lobe of the pituitary gland develops as a _ (or _) of the floor of the _ (* the _)
-anterior lobe derived from the _ _ |
-downgrowth; extension
-floor; hypothalamus -digestive tract |
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-_ that regulate activity of anterior and posterior lobes of pituitary gland originate in the _
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-neurons; hypothalamus
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-in the posterior lobe of pituitary gland, neurons pass through _ *(_) directly into posterior lobe
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-infundibulum; stalk
|
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-for the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, neurons _ near the _ _
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-terminate; capillary bed
|
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2 secretions of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland:
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1.ADH (AntiDiuretic Hormone)
2.Oxytocin |
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-ADH regulates _ _ by _
-oxytocin regulates _ _ during _ and the secretion of _ by _ _ |
-0water reabsorption; kidneys
-uterine contractions; birth -milk; mammary glands |
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-anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes _
-the thyroid gland is located on the _ surface of the _ - |
-TSH
-ventral; trachea |
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-3 hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND:
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1.Triiodothyronine (T3).
2.Tetraiodothyronine (T4) 3.Calcitonin |
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-T3 & T4 have functions in _ & _
-T3 & T4 maintain _ _, _ _, _ _, _ and _ functions |
-development; maturation
-blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestion; reproductive functions |
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-T3 & T4 regulate _ levels as measured in _ _
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-metabolic; oxygen consumption
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-neurons in hypothalamus secrete _ (_-_: _ _ _ _ _)
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-TRH
-TSH-TRH -Thyroid Stimulation Hormone- Thyroid Releasing Hormone |
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-TRH stimulates cells in _ _ to secrete _ (_ _ _)
-TSH levels in blood _ |
-anterior pituitary; TSH
-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone -increase |
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-T3 n T4 also act as _ _ of TRH
-normal (setpoint) level of blood Calcium (Ca) is about _ _/_ _ |
-feedback inhibitors
-10 mg/100 ml |
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-the thyroid works in conjunction with the _ to maintain proper levels of _
-pancreas is located in the _ _ & lays along side the _ _ _ |
-parathyroid; calcium
-abdominal cavity -upper small intestines |
|
-the pancreas has both _ and _ functions
-endocrine cells are clustered together forming _ among _ cells |
-exocrine; endocrine
-ISLETS; exocrine |
|
-2 islets of langerhans cell types:
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1.Alpha cells
2.Beta cells |
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-alpha cells secrete _
-beta cells secrete _ |
-GLUCAGON
-INSULIN |
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-balance of _ and _ maintains proper levels of _ _ in blood
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-glucagon; insulin; circulating glucose
|
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-GLUCAGON stimulates _ cells to _ _
-secretion of alpha cells increases when _ _ _ begins to _ too _ |
-liver; breakdown glycogen
-blood glucose levels; decrease; low |
|
-INSULIN stimulates _, _, and most other cells to take in _ from blood
-secretion by beta cells increases when blood glucose level _ _ _ |
-liver; muscle; glucose
-increases too high |
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-in homeostasis, blood sugar level remains relatively _ (~_ _/ _ _)
-theres constant turnover of _ _ in blood |
-constant
-90mg/100ml -glucose molecules |
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-cells must communicate to remain _ and so that events and processes will be _
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-orderly; coordinated
|
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-the ultimate goal of orderly n coordinated activities is _ _
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-REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS
|
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-2 ways of cell communication by direct contact b/w cells is _ _ (_ _ in animal cells and _ in plant cells) & _-_ _
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-cell junctions; gap junctions; plasmodesmata
-cell-cell recognition |
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-both plants n animal cells have cell junctions that allows _ to pass readily b/w _ cells without _ _ _
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-molecules; adjacent
-crossing plasma membrane |
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-cell-cell recognition in when _ cells in an _ communicate by interaction b/w _ _ from their _
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-2; animals; molecules protruding; surfaces
|
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-paracrine signaling is when a secreting cell acts on nearby _ _ by _ molecules of a _ _ (a growth factor for example) into the _ _
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-target cells; discharging; local regulator; extracellular fluid
|
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-synaptic signaling is when a _ cell releases _ molecules into a _, stimulating the _ _
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-nerve; neurotransmitter
-synapse; target cell |
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-hormonal signaling is when specialized _ cells secrete homrones into _ _, often the _
-hormones may reach virtually _ _ _ |
-endocrine; body fluids; blood
-all body cells |
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-3 steps in cell signaling:
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1.Reception
2.Transduction 3.Response |
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-the _ molecule binds with the _ which goes into the _ of the cell and performs _ (_ molecules in a _ _ _) which activates a _ _
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-signal; receptor; cytoplasm; transduction; (relay; transduction pathway)
-cellular response |
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-_ is an example of cell signaling b/c it activates _ _ which results in the activation of _ and other enzymes which leads to _ _
-another example would be the activation of _ and _ cells, an _ response or the control of _ and _ _ |
-auxin; proton pumping; expansin; cell elongation
-T; B; allergic; breathing; heart rate |
|
-CYTOPLASMIC RECEPTORS bind _ _ _
-Membrane-bound receptors bind _ _ _ molecules |
-steroid signal molecules
-water soluble signal |
|
-3 types of membrane-bound receptors:
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1.G-protein-linked receptors
2.Tyrosine Kinase receptors 3.Ion Channel receptors |
|
-the steroid hormone testosterone passes through the _ _
-testosterone binds to a _ _ in the _, activating it -the hormone-receptor complex enters the _ and binds to specific _ -the bound protein stimulates the _ of the gene into _ -the _ is _ into a specific _ |
-plasma membrane
-receptor protein; cytoplasm -nucleus; genes -transcription; mRNA -mRNA; translated; protein |
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-_ _ (aka _) is a second messenger is a G-protein-signaling pathway
|
-Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
|
|
PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE
1. A _ molecule activates _ _ _ |
-relay; protein kinase 1
|
|
PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE
2. active protein kinase 1 transfers a _ from _ to an _ molecule of * _ _ _, thus activating this _ _ 3. active protein kinase 2 then catalyzes the _ (and _) of _ _ _ 4. Finally, the active protein kinase 3 phosphorylates a _ (_) that brings about the cell's _ to the signal |
-phosphate; ATP; inactive
-PROTEIN KINASE 2 -2nd kinase -phosphoylation; activation; PROTEIN KINASE 3 -protein (pink); response |
|
PHOSPHORYLATION CASCADE
5. Enzymes called _ _ (_) catalyze the removal of the _ _ from the proteins, making them _ and available for _ |
-Protein Phosphatases (PP)
-phosphate groups; inactive; reuse |
|
-the stimulation of glycogen breakdown by _ is an example of a _ _ to a signal
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-epinephrine; CYTOPLASMIC RESPONSE
|
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-one chemical signal can have many _ _ depending on _ _ and type of _
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-different effects; cell type; receptors
|
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-T4 has 4 _ atoms
-T3 has _ _ atoms -T3 is a more _ form of _ |
-iodine
-3 iodine -active; thyroxine |
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-T3 & T4 are specialized _ _
-thyroid gland secretes 2 enzymes- _ & _ |
-amino acids
-T3 & T4 |
|
-thyroid gland is in control of the _ _
-When the level of thyroid hormones (_ & _) drops too low, the _ _produces _ _ _ (_) which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce more _ & _ |
-pituitary gland
-T3 & T4; pituitary gland -Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) -T3 & T4 |
|
-The hypothalamus is part of the brain and produces _ _ _ (_) which tells the _ _ to stimulate the thyroid gland to release _
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-Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH); pituitary gland
-TSH |
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-the function of the thyroid gland is to take _, _ found in many foods, and convert it into thyroid hormones _ (_) & _ (_)
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-iodine; salt
-thyroxine (T4); -triiodothyronine (T3). |
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-TSH is produced in the _ system and is transported through the _ _
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-endocrine; systemic system
|
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-T3 & T4 binding to cells in _ _ _ and _ _ have an inhibiting effect (_ _ _)
-_ is an exceedingly impt. mineral in the blood |
-anterior pituitary gland; Hypothalamus neurons
-calcium |
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-PTH is the _ _
-if theres a deficit of calcium in blood, body gets it from _ -calcium is constantly _ and _ _ cells |
-ParaThyroid Hormone
-bone -entering; leaving bone |
|
-if calcium level rises, _ cells secrete _, response seen in _
-calcotonin stimulates _ _ in _ & reduces _ _ in _ |
-thyroid; ccalcitonin; liver
-calcium deposition; bones -calcium uptake; kidneys |
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-deficit of calcium stimulates the release of the _ _ (_)
- |
-Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
|
|
-PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) stimulates _ _ from _ and stimulates _ _ in _
|
-calcium release; bones
-calcium uptake; kidneys |
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-we need _ _ to digest calcium in digestive tract
-_ cells are panreatic cells |
-vitamin d
-acinan |
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-ANCINAN cells are _ % _ or _ in nature and _ % endocrine
|
-90; exocrine; digestive
-10 |
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-endocrine secretions go to the _ _
-_ & _ play a major role in _ _ of glucose in blood |
-extracellular space
-insulin; glucagon; homeostatic balance |
|
-glucagon n insulin have _ _
-small intestines breaks down starch to _ -high blood glucose levels for a long period of time lead to _ |
-contrary effects
-disaccharides -diabetes |
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-diabetes happens when _ _ is stopped or cells _ _ to insulin
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-insulin production; stop responding
|
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-there are many more _ than arteries
-capillary diameter about the size of _ _ _ |
-arterioles
-red blood cell |
|
-degree of constriction or dilation of arterioles is controlled by the _ _
-capillaries are a single layer of _ -_ number of capillaries ensures that most cells are no more than _ _ from a source of _ |
-nervous system
-epithelium -large; 80 micrometers; blood |
|
-compared to arteries and arterioles, veins and venules have a much _ _, and _ _
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-wider lumen; thinner walls
|
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-blood flows towards the heart under very _ _
-each heart contraction takes about _ _ |
-low pressure
-0.85 seconds |
|
-SYSTOLE refers to the _ of a chamber
-DIASTOLE refers to a period of _ b.w. _ |
-contraction
-relaxation; contractions |
|
-cardia cycle is a _ _ _
-_ blood enters the right atrium via the _ and _ _ _ |
- 2 stroke pump
-deoxy; superior; inferior vena cava |
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-_ blood enters the left atirum via the _ _
|
-oxygenated; pulmonary veins
|
|
stroke # 1: contraction of _ forces blood into the _
stroke # 2: contraction of the _ sends blood into the _ _ |
-atria; ventricles
-ventricles; major arteries |
|
-contraction of the heart is _
-electrical signal from the _ _ induces the contraction of L n R atrium |
-intrinsic
-SA NODE |
|
-SA node signal reaches specialized _ _ at the base of the _ _ called the _ (_) _
|
-cardiac muscle; right atrium
-AtrioVentricular (AV) Node |
|
-abnormal EKGs help diagnose _ of the cardiac problem
-brain sends nerve impulses to heart via the _ _ _ |
-location
-autnomic nervous system |
|
stroke # 1: contraction of _ forces blood into the _
stroke # 2: contraction of the _ sends blood into the _ _ |
-atria; ventricles
-ventricles; major arteries |
|
-in aorta n major arteries and arterioles the blood flow is _, _, and pressure is _
|
-high; pulsatile; high
|
|
-capillaries have the greatest _-_ _
-flow rate increases in _ but pressure continues to _ |
-cross-sectional area
-veins; decrease |
|
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can diminish flow to a region
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can _ _ to a region |
-contraction; smooth muscles
-relaxation; smooth muscles; increase flow |
|
-_-_ _ can shunt flow through a capillary bed
-precapillary sphincters can bypass most capillaries via a _ _ |
-pre-capillary sphincters
-thoroughfare channel |
|
-at the arterial end of the capillary there is greater _ _ than _ _
-the net pressure to force _ _ of the capillary is _ _ |
-hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure
-plasma out; 10 mm |
|
-venous end of the capillary draws _ _ _
-this is because there is greater _ _ than there is _ _ |
-plasma into capillary
-osmotic pressure; hydrostatic pressure |
|
-contraction of the heart is _
-electrical signal from the _ _ induces the contraction of L n R atrium |
-intrinsic
-SA NODE |
|
-SA node signal reaches specialized _ _ at the base of the _ _ called the _ (_) _
|
-cardiac muscle; right atrium
-AtrioVentricular (AV) Node |
|
-abnormal EKGs help diagnose _ of the cardiac problem
-brain sends nerve impulses to heart via the _ _ _ |
-location
-autnomic nervous system |
|
-in aorta n major arteries and arterioles the blood flow is _, _, and pressure is _
|
-high; pulsatile; high
|
|
-capillaries have the greatest _-_ _
-flow rate increases in _ but pressure continues to _ |
-cross-sectional area
-veins; decrease |
|
stroke # 1: contraction of _ forces blood into the _
stroke # 2: contraction of the _ sends blood into the _ _ |
-atria; ventricles
-ventricles; major arteries |
|
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can diminish flow to a region
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can _ _ to a region |
-contraction; smooth muscles
-relaxation; smooth muscles; increase flow |
|
-_-_ _ can shunt flow through a capillary bed
-precapillary sphincters can bypass most capillaries via a _ _ |
-pre-capillary sphincters
-thoroughfare channel |
|
-at the arterial end of the capillary there is greater _ _ than _ _
-the net pressure to force _ _ of the capillary is _ _ |
-hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure
-plasma out; 10 mm |
|
-venous end of the capillary draws _ _ _
-this is because there is greater _ _ than there is _ _ |
-plasma into capillary
-osmotic pressure; hydrostatic pressure |
|
-contraction of the heart is _
-electrical signal from the _ _ induces the contraction of L n R atrium |
-intrinsic
-SA NODE |
|
-SA node signal reaches specialized _ _ at the base of the _ _ called the _ (_) _
|
-cardiac muscle; right atrium
-AtrioVentricular (AV) Node |
|
-abnormal EKGs help diagnose _ of the cardiac problem
-brain sends nerve impulses to heart via the _ _ _ |
-location
-autnomic nervous system |
|
-in aorta n major arteries and arterioles the blood flow is _, _, and pressure is _
|
-high; pulsatile; high
|
|
-capillaries have the greatest _-_ _
-flow rate increases in _ but pressure continues to _ |
-cross-sectional area
-veins; decrease |
|
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can diminish flow to a region
-_ of _ _ of arterioles can _ _ to a region |
-contraction; smooth muscles
-relaxation; smooth muscles; increase flow |
|
-_-_ _ can shunt flow through a capillary bed
-precapillary sphincters can bypass most capillaries via a _ _ |
-pre-capillary sphincters
-thoroughfare channel |
|
-at the arterial end of the capillary there is greater _ _ than _ _
-the net pressure to force _ _ of the capillary is _ _ |
-hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure
-plasma out; 10 mm |
|
-venous end of the capillary draws _ _ _
-this is because there is greater _ _ than there is _ _ |
-plasma into capillary
-osmotic pressure; hydrostatic pressure |
|
-heart attacks kill someone every _ second in US
-O2 is provided by the _ _ -is necessary for _ _ and too little will inhibit _ _ |
-72
-respiratory medium -aerobic respiration; cell metabolism |
|
-CO2 is produced as a result of _ _
-too much will _ _ and _ _ |
-aerobic respiration
-acidify cytoplasm; extracellular spaces |
|
-excess CO2 is transported to the _ _
-all gases must be _ in _ to enter/leave cell |
-respiratory medium
-dissolved; water |
|
-since O2 content of water is lower than that of air, gills are required to be _
-air is _ _ than water therefore less _ is used in _ |
-ventilated
-less dense; energy; ventilation |
|
-lungs evolved in _, _ _, and _
-_ _ n _ controls breathing rate (located in _) |
-spiders, terrestrial snails, vertebrates
-0medulla oblongata; pons; brain |
|
-medulla responds to _ _ in _ _
-blood pH is affected by _ _ -when pH drops too low, due to buildup of _, stimulates _ _ |
-small changes; blood pH
-CO2 levels -CO2; Breathing center |
|
-as CO2 is transferred to air from lungs (and blood), pH _
-control of breathing is relatively insensitive to _ _ |
-rises
-O2 levels |
|
-special tissue in _ and _ _ are stimulated when O2 drops to extremely low levels
-Oxygen is transported by _ _ |
-aorta; carotid arteries
-respiratory pigments |
|
-respiratory pigments are needed for the _ of O2 b/c Oxygen is not very _ in _ (_)
|
-transportation; soluble; water; plasma
|
|
-respiratory pigments such as _ n _ bind much more O2
-this increases the _ _ for O2 of _ |
-Hemoglobin; Cyanoglobin
-carrying capacity; blood |
|
-each rbc contains about _ molecules of hemoglobin
-O2 binds to _ co-factor (_) which is located in hemoglobin _ |
-200
-metal; iron; protein |
|
-CO2 produced by cells _ into _ _ and then into _
-diffusion over large distances is _ _ |
-diffuses; interstitial fluid; plasma
-too slow |
|
-function of the immune system is to _ n _ _ _
-foreign substances include (4); |
-recognize; reject foreign substances
1.Bacteria 2.Viruses 3.Tissues 4.Allergens |
|
-recognition of foreign substances by the immune system occurs at the _ _
|
-molecular level
|
|
- _ (_) is a molecule that stimulates the immune system
-immune system is principally located in these 3 areas: |
-Antigen; AG
1.Connectice Tissue Spaces 2.Blood System 3.Lymphatic System |
|
-immune system located in _ organs
-white blood cells called _ -2 main types of white blood cells : |
-lymphoid
-leukocytes 1.Granulocytes 2.Agranulocytes |
|
-granulocytes contain _, _ limited vesicles called _
|
-large; membrane
-GRANULES |
|
-antigens are usually _ can be _ and may contain _ (or _)
-immune system is distributed throughout the _ associated with _ _ |
-proteins; carbs; polysaccharides; glycoproteins
-body; lymphatic system |
|
-lymphatic organs are responsible for making _ _ _
-immune system connects all _ _ |
-immune system cells
-lymphatic organs |
|
-a process called _ is used to see contents of blood
-rbc's are called _ |
-centrifuge
-ERYTHROCYTES |
|
-rbc's transport _ and help transport _
-leukocytes function in _ and _ |
-O2; CO2
-defense; immunity |
|
-3 types of granulocyte leukocytes:
(in order from most to least granules) |
1.Neutrophils
2.Eosinophils 3.Basophils |
|
-agranulocytes contain very _ _
-2 types of agranulocytes: |
-small vesicles
1.Monocytes 2.Lymphocytes |
|
-2 types of lymphocytes:
|
1.T-CELLS
2.B-CELLS |
|
-platelets are responsible for _ _
-lymphocytes (t-cells & b-cells) circulate in _ _ |
-blood clotting
-connective tissues |
|
-albumin is a _ protein produced by the _ & creates _ _
|
-plasma; liver; hydrostatic pressure
|
|
-prevalent component of blood is :
-_ cells are only located in CT |
-red blood cells
-Mast |
|
-Immune cells in CT:
|
1.Lymphocytes
2.Macrophages 3.Mast Cells 4.Natural Killer (NK) cells (dendritic cells) |
|
-innate non-specific immune defenses include these barriers:
|
1.Skin
2.Mucus 3.Secretions |
|
2 antimicrobial proteins:
|
1.Complement
2.Interferons |
|
-damage to _ and cells in _ causes release of inflammatory agents
-_ & _ cause capillaries to dialate and become very _ |
-capillaries; CT
-Bradykinin; Histamine -permeable |
|
-_ and _ squeeze THru capillaries n enter in _ _ _
-monocytes differentiate into _ |
-Neurophils; Monocytes
-connective tissue spaces -MACROPHAGES |
|
-2 special properties of specific/acquired immune responses:
|
1.Specificity
2.Memory |
|
-lymphocytes are derived from _ _ in _ _
|
-stem cells; lymphoid organs
|
|
-cells need to comunicate in order to keep things in _
-cells communicate by _ _ |
-order
-sending signals |