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189 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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three approaches to brain/body interactions
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somatic intervention, behavioral intervention, correlation
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somatic intervention
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alter the structure or function of the brain to see what changes occur in behavior (ex: lesions→behavior
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behavioral intervention
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changes in behavior of organism, look for changes in function (ex: put two people together → look for hormone changes)
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correlation
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find extent to which a bio measure correlates with a behavioral measure (ex: brain size & intelligence)
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pure research
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motivated out of curiosity & desire for knowledge
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applied research
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motivated by desire to help humankind
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biopsych is a discipline of
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neuroscience
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biopsychology is defined as
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“the scientific study of the biology of behavior”
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other names for biopsychology
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psychobiology, behavioral biology, behavioral neuroscience
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neuroanatomy
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study of the structure of the nervous system
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neurochemistry
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study of the chemical bases of neural activity
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neuroendocrinology
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interactions between nervous system and endocrine system
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neuropathology
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nervous system disorders
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neuropharmacology
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the study of the effects of drugs on neural activity
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neurophysiology
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function and activities of the nervous system
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human vs. animal brains
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quantitative rather than qualitative differences, animals are smaller and have less cortical development
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advantages of animal studies
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1. simpler → easier to study, 2. insights come from comparative approach, 3. more flexible ethics
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advantages of human studies
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1. cheaper due to high quality of animal care, 2. report subjective experiences, 3. have a human brain
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electrical stimulation
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passing a low electrical current through a wire inserted into the brain, this activates cell bodies and axons, more crude
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chemical stimulation
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infusion of an excitatory chemical, such as glutamate, into a region, can activate particular cell bodies
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physiological psychology
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study neural mechanisms of behavior by direct manipulation of the brain in controlled experiments (ex: contributions of hippocampus to memory by surgically removing it in rats and having them perform tasks)
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psychopharmacology
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effects of drugs on the brain, tends to be more applied, animal or human studies, ex: improving memory in Alzheimer’s patients by administering drugs that increase acetylcholine
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neuropsychology
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brain damage in humans (ex: right hemisphere patients have trouble with humor), very applied, human research, ex: alcohol-produced brain damage → difficulty remembering events
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psychophysiology
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relation between physiological activity and psychological processes, usually humans and non invasive (GSR, EEG), ex: familiar faces elicit usual ANS activity even when brain damaged patients report no recognition
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cognitive neuroscience
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neural bases of cognition (memory, attention), youngest of disciplines, most active, mostly human subjects, noninvasive functional brain imaging, observe changes in the brain that occur with various memory tasks
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comparative psychology:
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compare diff species to understand evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior, deal with biology, ex: species of birds who cache their seeds have large hippocampi → role in memory for location)
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subfields of comparative psychology
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1. evolutionary psychology (evolutionary origins) and 2. behavioral genetics (i.e. epigenetics)
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gene engineering techniques
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1. gene knockout techniques, 2. gene replacement techniques, 3. fluorescence
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gene knockout techniques
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create organisms that lack a certain gene, gives insight into what gene controls, usually mice, results difficult to interpret because removing one gene can alter the expression of others (difficult to know specific function)
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gene replacement techniques
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replace one gene with another, i.e. transgenic mice with human genes, technique used to treat human genetic diseases
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fluorescence
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activate GFP gene in cells of interest to make them easier to visualize, this makes them glow green under blue light
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ways that neuropsychological testing is helpful
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1. assists in diagnosis of neural disorders, 2. serves as a basis for counseling and caring for patients, 3. basis for objectively evaluating the effectiveness of treatment and its side effects
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customized battery approach to testing
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occurs in two phases, 1. general battery to all patients (ex: intelligence, memory, language, language lateralization), 2. specific tests customized to patient)
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types of language lateralization tests
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1. sodium amytal: antesthetize one hemisphere at a time and administer language tests, 2. dichotic listening: three digits spoken in each ear at same time, correctly report more in dominant hemisphere
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single vs. double dissociation
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used to identify the neural structure for a cognitive process: 1. one factor affects process 1 but not 2, 2. a different factor affects process 2 but not 1, single dissociation only meets one of these criteria
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example single dissociation
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difficulty standing on one leg but not two, this has to do with sensitivity of the test so can’t really say they’re separate processes
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example double dissociation
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Wernicke’s (language comprehension) vs. Broca’s (language production) areas
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conditioned taste aversion
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avoidance response that develops to the taste of food whose consumption has been followed by illness, an influential paradigm because it challenged widely held views of learning
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challenged views of learning
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1. step by step process vs. one trial, 2. need for temporal contiguity vs. separated by several hours, 3. associations between any two stimuli are equally easy to learn vs. difference between taste and light
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afferent nerves
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part of the somatic nervous system, carry sensory information from the skin, muscles, joints, eyes, etc. to the CNS
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efferent nerves
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part of both somatic and autonomic nervous system, both para/sympathetic nervous system, carry motor information from CNS to skeletal muscles
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ventricles
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four large internal chambers of the brain: two lateral ventricles, third and fourth ventricles
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cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
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clear, similar to blood plasma, fills subarachnoid space, central canal of spinal cord, & ventricles, supports and cushions brain, excess is absorbed from subarachnoid space into dural sinuses
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choroid plexuses
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small network of capillaries that protrude into the ventricles and continually produce CSF
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too little CSF leads to
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headaches and extreme pain when turning head
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too much CSF leads to
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expanding ventricles and hydrocephalus
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sulci
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small furrows (grooves) in the cortex
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fissures
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large furrows in the cortex
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gyrus
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bumps in the cortex
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shape classifications of neurons
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multipolar, unipolar, bipolar, interneuron
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multipolar neuron
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two or more processes extending from its cell body, most are multipolar
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unipolar neuron
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one process extending from cell body
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bipolar neuron
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two processes extending from cell body
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interneuron
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short or no axon, functions to integrate neural activity within a single brain structure rather than passing signals from one section to another
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size classifications of neurons
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small: granule, spindle, stellate, large: pyramidal, Golgi Type I, Purkinje
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functional classifications of neurons
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motorneurons, sensory neurons, interneurons
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oligodendrites
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glial cells that myelinate axons of the CNS
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Schwann cells
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glial cells that compose the myelin sheaths of PNS axons and promote their regeneration
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differences between oligodendrites and Schwann cells
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1. oligodendrites provide several myelin segments, often on more than one axon, 2. only Schwann cells guide regeneration, 3. in CNS vs PNS
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white matter
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portions of the nervous system that are white because they are composed largely of myelinated axons, layer beneath the cortex and outer layer of spinal cord
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gray matter
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portions of the nervous system that are gray because they are composed largely of neural cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons, cerebral cortex an H-shaped core in spinal cord
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TMS
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transcranial magnetic stimulation, temporarily disrupts activity of the brain by placing an electromagnetic coil against the skull
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ERP
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evoked-response potentials, average EEG responses to particular types of stimuli over hundreds of trials and plots surface pattern of electrical activity
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two approaches to ERP analysis
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1. time series: variance across a single electrode, 2. topography: variance across electrodes at a single time point
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EEG
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electroencephalograph, electrodes placed on the scalp, shows a line that charts the summated electrical fields produced by many neurons (“brain waves”)
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advantages of EEG
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1. detects very rapid changes in electrical activity → allows analysis of stages of cognitive activity, 2. allows analysis of stages of consciousness and cerebral pathology (e.g., epilepsy)
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disadvantages of EEG
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1. poor spatial resolution of the source of electrical activity, 2. sometimes combined with MEG to make up for this, 3. only measures activity close to scalp/cortex
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PET
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positron emission tomography, radioactively labeled compound injected, positrons emit gamma radiation that is detected by a sensor outside of the head, this images glucose metabolism or regional blood flow
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advantages of PET
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1. allows functional and biochemical studies, 2. provides visual image corresponding to anatomy (measures activity, not structure)
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disadvantages of PET
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1. requires exposure to low levels of radioactivity, 2. provides spatial resolution better than EEG but poorer than MRI, 3. can’t follow rapid changes (faster than 30 sec)
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MRI
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magnetic resonance imaging, exposes the brain to magnetic field and measures radio frequency waves, provides a high resolution image of brain anatomy
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advantages of MRI
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1. requires no exposure to radioactivity, 2. provides high spatial resolution of anatomical details, 3. provides high temporal resolution
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fMRI
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functional magnetic resonance imaging, modification of MRI that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain
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BOLD signal
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blood oxygen level dependent signal, measures blood flow responses to neural activity in fMRI
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advantages of fMRI
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1. nothing injected, 2. high spatial resolution, 3. can have contrast studies, but don’t have to
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disadvantages of fMRI
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1. relatively low temporal resolution (can map fMRI results onto MRI structures to get a combo picture)
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MEG
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magnetoencephalography, measures change sin magnetic fields induced by electrical signals
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advantages of MEG
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1. high temporal resolution, 2. high spatial resolution
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disadvantages of MEG
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1. only measures activity near the scalp/cortex
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fMRI vs PET
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1. no injection in fMRI, 2. fMRI, can measure repeatedly, 3. fMRI both structural and functional info, 4. fMRI more widely available, 5. spatial resolution better in fMRI, 6. can make 3D images of activity in fMRI; 7. both metabolism
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techniques that IMAGE brain activity
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PET, fMRI, MEG
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physiological measures of sleep
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EOG, EMG, EEG
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EOG
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electrooculogram, electrical potential from the eyes is recorded by electrodes placed on the sin around them, detects eye movements (i.e. during REM sleep)
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EMG
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electromyogram, electrode placed on muscle to record activity (i.e. loss of neck muscle activity in REM)
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EEG
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electroencephalogram, brain waves recorded
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stages of sleep
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stages 1 to 4, REM
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alpha waves
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preparing to sleep, eyes closed, relaxed mental state, 8 to 12 Hz EEG waves
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stage 1 sleep
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theta waves, low voltage and high frequency
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stage 2 sleep
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k complexes (large negative waves) and sleep spindles (burst of 12 to 14 Hz waves)
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stage 3 & 4 sleep
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delta waves (large and slow), difficult to awaken, slow wave sleep
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delta sleep
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stage 4 sleep
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emergent stage 1 sleep
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REM sleep
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REM sleep
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rapid eye movements, loss of core muscle tone, low amplitude/high frequency EEG, increased cerebral and autonomic activity, muscles may twitch, clitoral or penile erection, vivid dreams, easier to awaken
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paradoxical sleep
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REM sleep, so called because brain waves are more similar to stage one or awake (low voltage and fast)
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atonia
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almost complete loss of muscle control during REM sleep
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theories of dreaming
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1. theory of dreams, 2. activation-synthesis theory, 3. replay theory
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theory of dreams
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Freud, dreams triggered by unacceptable repressed wishes, manifest dreams (what we experience) vs. latent dreams (underlying meaning), latent dreams are driven by id, no evidence for this
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activation-synthesis theory
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Hobson, cortex creates a story to make sense of brain activity (“narrative out of noise”), ex: Stickgold’s Tetris patients
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replay theory
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McNaughton & Wilson, during REM, neurons replay the day’s experiences, role in memory consolidation, ex: rats ran around a track during the day, same sequence of neurons firing on the same timescale during REM
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theories of why we sleep
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1. recuperation, 2. circadian theories/adaptive theories
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recuperation theories
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sleep is needed to restore homeostasis, wakefulness causes a deviation from homeostasis, body uses sleep to repair
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circadian theories/adaptive theories
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sleep is the result of an internal timing mechanism evolved to protect us from nighttime dangers (mishap/ predation), support: no relationship between activity level and sleep time, but is one for vulnerability
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zeitgebers
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environmental cues that entrain circadian rhythms, e.g. light-dark cycle, eating times, exercise, social interaction (anchor circadian rhythm)
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superchiasmatic nucleus
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area of the brain in the medial hypothalamus that deals with the regulation of circadian rhythms based on light-dark cycles. doesn’t affect sleep, just circadian rhythm in which sleep occurs. transplanted in hamsters
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free running cycles
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circadian rhythms that are grounded by no or few zeitgebers, i.e. in people in a dark room with a cycle a bit longer than 24 hours
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comparative sleep studies
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study of how much sleep is needed by various animal species. most mammals and birds sleep, but there isn’t an apparent correlation between sleep length and factors like activity levels, body size, or body temp
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four suggestions from comparative sleep studies
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1. most mammals and birds sleep → physiologically important, 2. sleep isn’t a higher order function of the human brain, 3. large amounts of sleep don’t seem necessary, 4. sleep length may be related to vulnerability
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effects of sleep deprivation
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difficult to determine what is caused by stress and deprivation itself, but it does 1. increase sleepiness, 2. increase negative affect on written mood tests, 3. poor performance on vigilance tests,
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effects of sleep deprivation contd.
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4. decreased executive function, 5. reduced body temp, 6. increased blood pressure, 7. decreased immune system functioning, 8. hormone changes, 9. metabolic changes. these are cured by relatively short periods of sleep
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effects of REM deprivation
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findings vary. 1. when replaced by periods of wakefulness, no detriment, 2. when deprived, enter REM quicker and stay longer, 3. REM deprivation from antidepressants seems to have little negative impact
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cat sleep studies
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transection in superior area of reticular formation enter continuous slow-wave sleep, in posterior section have normal sleep-wake cycles, so neural areas responsible for sleep/wakefulness are likely in between, this wakes cats.
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genes and proteins in sleep
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genes produce 2 proteins: per & tim, which interact with a third protein (clock) to produce sleepiness. per & tim build up over the course of the day.
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more on per and tim
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light stops the production of tim, we feel awake when we don’t have much tim. (light from retina → SCN → tim) a human per genetic mutation is associated with circadian rhythm less than 24 hours
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tau
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mutation on the tau gene in hamsters caused free-running circadian rhythms of 20 hours
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clock
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mammalian circadian gene found in mice
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microsleeps
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naps of 2 to 3 seconds, brief periods of sleep that occur in sleep deprived subjects while they remain sitting or standing
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carousel apparatus
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an apparatus used to study the effects of sleep deprivation in lab rats
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hypnotic drugs
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sleep promoting drugs (e.g. benzodiasepines like Valium & Librium)
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main categories of sleep disorders
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1. insomnia, 2. hypersomnia, 3. REM sleep related disorders
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insomnia
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all disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep - too little undisturbed sleep, many causes are iatrogenic (caused by physicians), sleep restriction therapy is one of most common treatments
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sleep apnea
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two types, 1. obtrusive sleep apnea from obstruction of respiratory passages by muscle spasms or atonia, 2. central sleep apnea - failure of CNS to stimulate respiration
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other kinds of sleep disorders
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periodic limb movement disorder and restless leg syndrome
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hypersomnia
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disorders of excessive sleep or sleepiness
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narcolepsy
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most common form of hypersomnia, characteristics sleep paralysis: inability to move, hynogogic hallucination: dreamlike experiences during wakefulness
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narcolepsy contd.
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include: severe daytime sleepiness and brief daytime sleep episodes, cataplexy: loss of muscle tone during wakefulness, often triggered by emotional experience,
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areas of brain important for sleep and wakefulness
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1. posterior hypothalamus (wakefulness), 2. anterior hypothalamus (sleep), 3. reticular formation (wakefulness in brain stem), 4. reticular REM sleep nuclei (REM sleep)
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posterior hypothalamus
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structure that promotes sleep. encephalitis lethargica victims slept almost continuously, all had damage to posterior hypothalamus
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anterior hypothalamus
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structure that promotes wakefulness, encephalitis lethargica victims could not sleep, all had damage to anterior hypothalamus
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reticular formation
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wakefulness structure in brain stem
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reticular REM sleep nuclei
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part of the caudal reticular formation (reticular activating system), controls REM sleep as well
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agonists
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drugs that facilitate the effects of a neurotransmitter by 1. increasing synthesis of neurotransmitter molecules, 2. destroying its degrading enzymes, 3. increasing its release from the terminal buttons
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agonists (contd.)
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4. blocking autoreceptors to stop their inhibitory effect, 5. binding to the postsynaptic receptors, 6. blocking reuptake of the neurotransmitter
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antagonists
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inhibit the effects of a neurotransmitter by 1. blocking the synthesis of the neurotransmitter, 2. causing molecules to leak from vesicles and be destroyed y degrading enzymes
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antagonists (contd.)
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3. block release of the neurotransmitter from the terminal buttons, 4. activating autoreceptors, 5. binding to and blocking postsynaptic receptors
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drug administration routes
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oral ingestion, injection, inhalation, absorption through mucous membranes
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oral ingestion
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easy, relatively safe, but unpredictable due to absorption variables
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injection
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effects are strong, fast, and predictable. can be made subcutaneously (SC), intramuscularly (IM), or intravenously (IV). but harder to counter in the case of an OD, can cause scar tissue, infections, and collapsed veins
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inhalation
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fast absorption but difficult to regulate dose and can damage lungs
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absorption through mucous membranes
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in nose, mouth and rectum
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tolerance
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a state of decreased sensitivity to a drug that develops as a result of exposure to it, so more of the drug has to be taken to achieve the same effect
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types of tolerance
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1. metabolic tolerance: the body is breaking down the drug, so less of it is getting to the site of action, 2. functional tolerance: less reactivity at the site of action
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withdrawal
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the physio sxs when a drug the body has become accustomed to is suddenly eliminated, opposite effects of the drug in question, severity depends on drug, degree of exposure, and speed of elimination
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addiction
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the habitual use of drugs despite its adverse effects on health and social life and despite repeated efforts to stop using the drug
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physical dependence
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when a person who stops taking a drug suffers withdrawal symptoms because the compensatory process that usually takes place to accommodate the drug are at work without the drug being present
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pleasure centers in the brain
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sites capable of mediating the stimulation of particular nuclei in the brain, 1. mesotelencephalic dopamine system, 2. nucleus accumbens, 3. nigrostriatial pathway, 4. ventral tegmental area, 5. mesocorticolimbic pathway
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mesotelencephalic dopamine system
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system of dopaminergic neurons htat project from the midbrain (mesencephalon) mainly to the nucleus accumbens, this makes up the nigrostriatal pathway
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mesocorticolimbic pathway
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dopaminergic neurons have cell bodies in ventral tegmental area and project to various cortical and limbic sites
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competitive binding
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the drug binds to the same receptor sites as the neurotransmitter
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noncompetitive binding
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the drug binds to associate receptors like autoreceptors or other sites blocking the function of the neurotransmitter
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sensitization
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increased effect of a drug following repeated drug uses (opposite of tolerance)
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self-stimulation
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administration of brief bursts of weak electrical stimulation to specific sites in their own brain (i.e. rats pressing lever thousands of tiems per hour)
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impulsivity
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an important determinant of drug use
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ESSAY: disciplines of biopsych, research, and example
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1. physiological psychology 2. psychopharmacology 3. neuropsychology 4. psychobiology 5. cognitive neuroscience 6. comparative psychology
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ESSAY: applying biopsychology research to your field of study
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1. psychophysiology: GSR and measures of ANS activity/stress in different educational contexts, 2. cognitive neuroscience: understanding neural processes underlying perspective taking and empathy
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ESSAY: the brain during lies (design, methodology, findings, advantages, disadvantages of methods)
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fMRI, have people answer questions while in a machine → cognitive processes involved in lying, diff types of lying, limitations: mismeasurements, inability to infer meaning, confounds, inaccuracy of lying artificially
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ESSAY: 2 commonly used methods of studying animal brains with advantages and disadvantages (method 1)
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1. invasive methods: i.e. implantation of electrodes, electrodes implanted by mapping to a location, drilling a hole, and inserting electrode. limitation in that neurons function as networks, some probs may be from surgery
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ESSAY: 2 commonly used methods of studying animal brains with advantages and disadvantages (method 2)
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2. creation of a lesion, seeing what is impaired, allows testing of a very specific brain area, difficult to know how much is from from collateral damage. two other methods: electrical stimulation, gene replacement
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ESSAY: two theoretical perspectives of sleep, support from research (theory 1)
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1. recuperation theories (sleep is needed to restore homeostasis, wakefulness causes a deviation from this, the body uses sleep to repair from activities), 2. circadian/adaptive theories (sleep is the result of an internal timing mechanism, evolved to protect us from nighttime dangers (mishap, predation), support: for circadian theories: 1. no clear relationship between activity level and sleep time, but is for vulnerability and sleep time
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ESSAY: two theoretical perspectives of sleep, support from research (theory 2)
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2. people seem to sleep on circadian cycles (zeitgebers, zuperchiasmatic nucleus, free running cycles); see evidence from comparative studies
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ESSAY: two consistent effects with REM deprivation
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1. enter REM more quickly, 2. REM rebound: stay there longer → suggests that we need REM sleep, what is the default theory of REM?
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ESSAY: what this suggests about the purpose of REM
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suggests that REM is necessary for mental health, motivation, & memory processing. also found that little impact from 1. replacing REM with periods of wakefulness and 2. antidepressants
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ESSAY: default theory of REM
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REM serves no critical fxn, can't stay in it continuously so switch in and out, wake up when bodily needs exist, replacing REM with wakefulness shows no ill effects
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ESSAY: role of learning in drug tolerance and withdrawl, specific example
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contingent drug tolerance: tolerance only develops to drug effects experienced, shown in before & after experiments (e.g. ethanol as anticonvulsant)
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ESSAY: role of learning in drug tolerance and withdrawl, specific example (contd.)
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conditioned drug tolerance: maximal tolerance effects seen in environment in which a drug is usually taken, rats receive alcohol and saline injections in distinctive rooms, tolerance where they got alcohol injection
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ESSAY: role of learning in drug tolerance and withdrawl, specific example (contd.)
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Siegel’s Pavlovian Theory of Drug Tolerance: CS: pre-drug event, UCS: drug, UCR: drug effect, CR: compensatory response, drug-predictive CS begins to elicit CRs (which are opposite to effects of the drug --> tolerance)
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ESSAY: compare conditioned and contingent drug tolerance, experimental demonstration of each, how they’ve changed thinking about drug tolerance
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conditioned drug tolerance depends on situations whereas contingent depends on actual experience, conditioned drug tolerance: alcohol injections, contingent drug tolerance: anticonvulsant effect
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ESSAY: different ways in which drugs can affect synaptic transmission
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1. increase neurotransmitter release, 2. block neurotransmitter clearance, 3. activate receptor (agonist), 4. decrease neurotransmitter release, 5. block receptor (antagonist), 6. block channel
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ESSAY: different ways in which drugs can affect synaptic transmission (contd.)
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types of receptor blockers: a. receptor blocker (binds with receptor but doesn’t activate it, direct antagonist), b. competitive (binds to same site as receptor), c. noncompetitive: binds to different site and blocks channel
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ESSAY: three key points of Schwabe et al
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1. compulsive drug use --> shift from goal directed to habitual control, 2. acute stressors reinstate habitual responding to drug related cues, 3. prolonged stress may accelerate the transition to involuntary drug use
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ESSAY: significance of Schwabe et al to biopsych field
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1. links research on different brain areas involved in goal-directed (PFC, dorsomedial striatum, and mediolateral thalamus) vs. habitual action (dorsolateral striatum)
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ESSAY: significance of Schwabe et al to biopsych field contd.
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2. many theories on the influence of stress on drug addiction, but little known about cognitive level → this research addresses this gap, 3. integrating a number of previous findings in the field of biopsych
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ESSAY: significance of Schwabe et al to my field
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1. identify kids exposed to stress early, help develop prevention programs, 2. those who lack access to resources may be more vulnerable to development of addictions
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ESSAY: significance of Schwabe et al to my field contd.
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3. use of CBT, goal-directed action training, development of motivation for abstinence, and strategies to promote social support in therapy
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ESSAY: new information with examples of Schwabe et al
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1. operational definition of habits as behaviors that continue when incentive value of goal is reduced (insensitivity to devaluation by gastric malaise),
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ESSAY: new information with examples of Schwabe et al contd.
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2. repeated drug use leads to deficits in goal-directed system (post mortem analyses → sig changes in neurochem of PFC after chronic drug abuse, hypoactive PFC and reduced dopamine receptor availability)
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ESSAY: new information with examples of Schwabe et al contd.
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3. acute stress before learning can make behavior more habitual (stress hormones impair plasticity in PFC, cognitive control processes mediated by PFC are impaired by stress)
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ESSAY: three limitations of Schwabe et al
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1. based on lit review, not actual study, so not directly tested, 2. doesn’t address resilience or other meditational factors, 3. whether strengthening of habit response is old habits or quicker development of new habits
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Golgi stain
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shows a few neurons in each slice, nice profile of neurons
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Nissl stain
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penetrates all cells on a slide, used to estimate the number of cell bodies
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limbic system
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regulation of motivated behaviors - fleeing, feeding, fighting, sexual behavior
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Bell's palsy
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causes facial muscles to become weak or paralyzed, sxs progress quickly, more likely if have diabetes, dry eye and tingling around lips that progress to neck pain and pain behind ear, damage to cranial nerve, most recover
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meningitis
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harmful organisms invade layers of meninges, causes inflammation, sxs: headache, stiff neck, head retract, convulsions, both bacterial and viral form, bacterial is more severe
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encephalitis
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infection of brain itself, causes death of substantia nigra, treated by removing entire hemisphere
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Glial cells other than oligodendrites and Schwann cells
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astrocytes and microglia
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myelencephalon functions
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regulates breathing and vital organs, composed largely of tracts, reticular formation: plays a part in sleep, arousal, attention, movement, various vital reflexes
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metencephalon functions
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Pons: Important in sleep and arousal. Cerebellum: coordination of movement
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mesencephalon functions
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Tectum: 1. Inferior colliculi: audition 2. Superior: vision Tegmentum 1. Periaqueductal gray matter– sensitivity to pain. 2. Substantia nigra – sensorimotor, degeneration --> Parkinson’s 3. Red nucleus sensorimotor
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diencephalon functions
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1. Thalamus: sensory relay nuclei 2. Hypothalamus: Regulate motivated behaviors, controls hormones for hunger, thirst, sex, and stress, controls release by pituitary, feeding, fighting, fleeing, & reproduction
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telencephalon functions
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1. Limbic system – regulation of motivated behaviors 2. Basal ganglia system – degeneration of caudate nucleus & putamen causes Parkinson’s Disease
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