Biopsychology Final Exam

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homeostasis

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temperature regulation and other biological processes that keep body variables within a fixed range

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set point

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a single value that the body works to maintain

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negative feedback

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processes that reduce discrepancies from the set point

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allostasis

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dynamic changes; adaptive way in which the body changes its set points depending on the situation

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basal metabolism

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the energy used to maintain a constant temperature while at rest

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poikilothermic

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body temperature matches that of their environment

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homeothermic

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use physiological mechanisms to maintain a nearly constant body temperature

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POA/AH

preoptic area/ anterior hypothalamus

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send output to the hindbrain's raphe nucleus, which controls the physiological mechanisms;

monitors body temperature by monitoring its own temperature

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cytokines

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proteins that attack intruders

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vasopressin

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hormone that raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels

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antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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enables the kidneys to reabsorb water from urine and make the urine more concentrated

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osmotic pressure

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tendency of water to flow across a semipermeable membrane from the area of low solute concentration to the area of higher concentration

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osmotic thirst

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triggered by high concentration of solutes (including sodium) outside the cells than inside; helps restore normal state

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OVLT (organum vasculosum laminae terminals) and SFO (subfornical organ)

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two areas most important for detecting osmotic pressure and the salt content of the blood

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supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus (PVN)

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areas of hypothalamus that control the rate at which the posterior pituitary releases vasopressin

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lateral preoptic area

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area of hypothalamus that controls drinking

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angiotensin II

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constricts blood vessels, compensating for drop in BP

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hypovolemic thirst

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thirst needed to restore salts and not just water due to loss of volume

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aldosterone

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hormone produced by the body when sodium reserves are low;

causes the kidneys, salivary glands, and sweat glands to retain salt

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lactase

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intestinal enzyme necessary for metabolizing lactose

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lactose

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sugar in milk

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sham-feeding

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experiments where everything an animal swallows leaks out of a tube connected to the esophagus or stoach

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vagus nerve

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conveys information about the stretching of the stomach walls, providing a major basis for satiety

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splanchnic nerves

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convey information about the nutrient contents of the stomach

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duodenum

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part of the small intestine adjoining the stomach; first digestive site that absorbs a significant amount of nutrients

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cholecysttokinin (CCK)

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limits meal size in two ways

1- constricts sphincter muscle between the stomach and duodenum

2- stimulates the vagus nerve to send signals to the hypothalamus, causing cells there to release a NT that is a shorter version of the CCK

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insulin

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enables glucose to enter the cells, except for brain cells, where glucose does not need insulin to enter

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leptin

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signals the brain about your fat reserves, providing a long-term indicator of whether you have been over or under eating

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arcuate nucleus

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has one set of neurons sensitive to hunger signals and a second set sensitive to satiety signals

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ghrelin

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stomach releases this during a period of food deprivation, where it triggers stomach contractions

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neuropeptide Y and agouti-related peptide

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NTs that block the satiety actions of the paraventricular nucleus, sometimes provoking extreme over eating

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lateral hypothalamus

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output from the paraventricular nucleus acts on this;

controls insulin secretion, alters taste responsiveness, and facilitates feeding in other ways

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ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

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output from here inhibits feeding and therefore damage to this area leads to overeating and weight gain

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mullerian ducts

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precursors to female internal structure

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wolffian ducts

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precursors to male internal structures

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SRY gene

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on male's Y chromosome;

causes primitive gonads to develop into testes

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androgens

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hormones that are more abundant in males that increase the growth of the testes

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mullerian inhibiting hormone (MIH)

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causes the mullerian ducts to degenerate; result is development of a penis and scrotum

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testosterone

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most widely known androgen

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estradiol

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most prominent type of estrogen

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progesterone

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hormone that prepares the uterus for the implantation of a fertilized hormone;

prepares the uterus for the implantation of a fertilized ovum and promotes the maintenance of pregnancy

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organizing effects

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effects of sex hormones that produce long-lasting structural effects;

occur during sensitive stage of early development

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activating effects

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effects of sex hormones that are more temporary, when a hormone increases some activity that lasts only while the hormone is present

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sensitive period

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time when hormones determine whether an embryo develops into a male or female anatomy

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alpha-fetoprotein

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hormone not present in adults;

in rodents- binds with estradiol and prevents it from entering cells, where it could produce masculinizing effects

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impotence

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inability to have an erection

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menstrual cycle

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a periodic variation in hormones and fertility over the course of about 28 days

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follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

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promotes the growth of a follicle in the ovary

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luteinizing hormone (LH)

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combination of this and FSH causes the follicle to release an ovum

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periovulatory period

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days around the middle of the menstrual cycle;

time of maximum fertility and high estrogen levels

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oxytocin

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pituitary hormone that stimulates contractions of the uterus during delivery of a baby, and it stimulates the mammary gland to release milk

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sexual selection

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2nd part of Darwin's theory

genes that make an individual more appealing to the other sex will increase the probability of reproduction, and therefore the next generation will resemble those who had these favorable genes

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gender identity

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how we identify sexually and what we call ourselves

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sex differences

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biological differences between males and females

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gender differences

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differences that result from people's thinking about themselves as male or female

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congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

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overdevelopment of the adrenal glands from birth

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intersexed

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people whose sexual development is intermediate

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classical conditioning

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pairing two stimuli changes the response of one of them

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instrumental conditioning

(operant conditioning)

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an individual's response leads to a reinforcer or punishment

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engram

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the physical representation of what has been learned

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equipotentiality

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all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors such as learning , and any part of the cortex can be substitute for any other

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mass action

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the cortex works as a whole, and more cortex is better

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lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP)

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one nucleus of the cerebellum;

essential for learning

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short-term memory

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memory of events that just happened

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long-term memory

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memory or events from further back

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consolidation

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STM --> LTM

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reconsolidation

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memory strengthened again by a process that requires protein synthesis

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working memory

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the way we store information while we are working with it

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delayed response task

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common test of working memory;

requires responding to something that you saw or heard a short while ago

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amnesia

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memory loss

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anterograde amnesa

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inability to form memories for events that happened AFTER brain damage

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memory for events that occurred before brain damage

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episodic memory

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memories of single personal events

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explicit memory

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deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory

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implicit memory

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influence of an experience on behavior, even if you do not recognize that influence

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procedural memory

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development of motor skills and habits; special kind of implicit memory

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delayed matching-to-sample task

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an animal sees an object (sample) and then, after a delay, gets a choice between two objects, from which it must choose the one that matches the sample

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delayed nonmatching-to-sample task

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animal must choose the object that is different than the sample

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Korsakoff's syndrome

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brain damage caused by prolonged thiamine deficiency;

occurs in chronic alcoholics

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confabulation

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symptom of korsakoff's where patients fill in memory gaps with guesses

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semantic dementia

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loss of semantic memory;

damage in the anterior and inferior regions of the temporal lobe

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Hebbian synapse

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a synapse that increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

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habituation

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a decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly and accompanied by no change in other stimuli

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sensitization

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an increase in response to mild stimuli as a result of exposure to more intense stimuli

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

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one or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a rapid series of stimuli

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specificity

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if some of the synapses onto a cell have been highly active and others have not, only the active ones become strengthened

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cooperativity

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nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP much more strongly than does repeated stimulation by just one axon

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associativity

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pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later response to the weak input

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long-term depression (LTD)

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a prolonged decrease in response at synapse, occurs for axons that have been less active than others

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AMPA receptor

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excited by the NT glutamate; opens sodium channels

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NMDA receptor

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excited by only glutamate; channel opens only if Mg leaves

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retrograde transmitter

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NT that travels back to the presynaptic cell to modify it