Biology Terms And Concepts

Front 1

What is homoplasy?

Back 1

This is a convergent character that arose
independently in two taxa

Front 2

What animal are whales most closely related to? (Deer, Hippopotamus, Pig, Camel?)

Back 2

Hippopotamus

Front 3

What was a special characteristic of the exterior of dinosaurs?

Back 3

Feathers

Front 4

What is an example of a feather extand dinosaur?

Back 4

Birds today!

Front 5

What is the basic taxonomy of birds in order?

Back 5

Domain- Eukarya
Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum- Chordata
Class- Aves
Superoder- Dinosauria
Suborder- Theropoda
Order- Passeriformes

Front 6

When did the mass extinction event occur that wiped out many of the dinosaurs?

Back 6

65 million years ago

Front 7

What is a misconception about the mass extinction?

Back 7

It only killed non-avian dinosaurs. That is how birds are still alive today (which are ancestors of dinosaurs).

Front 8

What is the K-T boundary?

Back 8

This is the time between the Tertiary and the Crestaceous Periods when the mass extinction occurred that wiped out 50% of the animal/plant species.

Front 9

How is the geologic time scale organized in general eras from oldest to earliest?

Back 9

Precambrian, [Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic]

Front 10

What periods (and MYA) is the Mesozoic Era divided into (oldest to earliest)?

Back 10

Triassic (245 MYA)
Jurassic (208 MYA)
Cretaceous (144 MYA)

Front 11

What periods (from oldest to earliest in MYA) is the Cenozoic Era divided into?

Back 11

Tertiary (65 MYA)
Quarternary (65 MYA)

Front 12

What is the unique development occurred during the Triassic Period?

Back 12

First dinosaurs and mammals appeared

Front 13

What is the unique development occurred during the Jurassic Period?

Back 13

Origin of birds

Front 14

What is the unique development occurred during the Cretaceous Period?

Back 14

Evolution of flowering plants

Front 15

What is the unique development occurred during the Tertiary Period?

Back 15

Divergence of modern mammals and birds

Front 16

What is the unique development of the Quarternary Period?

Back 16

The earliest human fossils (this is the period that continues into today)

Front 17

What is the outline form of the taxonomic arrangement of birds?

Back 17

Tetrapoda
I. Amphibia
II. Amniota
A. Mammalia
B. Reptilia
1. Testudines
2. Diapsida
a. Lepidosauria
b. Archosauria
i. Crocodylia
ii. Aves

Front 18

What is more closely
related to pterosauria? Theropoda or Crocodilia? (consider slide 21 of lecture 1)

Back 18

Theropoda- the last common ancestor of a Pters and Crocs lived long ago, and ancestors of Thers and Pters lived more
recently-- so a more recent
common ancestor means
Thers and Pters are more
closely related

Front 19

What are molecular evidence was studied and used to support the relationships of certain historic creatures with animals today?

Back 19

studied the amino acid
sequence of collagen proteins
from t-rex and mastodon fossil

Front 20

What were the conclusions of the molecular studies of the t-rex and mastodon fossils?

Back 20

t-rex sequence similar to
extant chickens (matched better with birds than modern reptiles)

mastodon sequence similar
to more closely related to
extant mammals

Front 21

What is an Important synapamorphic character of Maniraptors?

Back 21

semilunate carpal in the wrist allows for a flexible seizing function: preflight motion of the hands

Front 22

What branches from Maniraptors on its taxonomic tree?

Back 22

Dromaeosaurids, then Archaeopteryx, and finally Other birds

Front 23

What dinosaur is the most recent common ancestor of modern birds?

Back 23

Birds are descendants of theropod maniraptoran dinosaurs, probably something similar (but not identical) to a small dromaeosaur like velociraptor

Front 24

Researchers have found fossils of Theropod species in
Montana. Deeper deposits contain larger species, and more
recent deposits contain smaller species. How does this
observation support the theory of evolution?
A) It suggests that species are unchanging and of ancestral
origin
B) It proves that environments have changed over time
C) It provides evidence that lineages change over time
D) It shows that all species are related to each other

Back 24

C) It provides evidence that lineages change over time

Front 25

Why did Darwin argue that evidence of extinction
supports the theory of evolution?
A) It shows that reproduction is more important
than survival of the fittest
B) It shows that lower organisms have died to
make way for humans
C) It shows that nothing lasts forever
D) It shows that the number and types of species
have changed over time

Back 25

D) It shows that the number and types of
species have changed over time

Front 26

Evolutionary theory predicts that species are related, not
independent. Four of the following examples provide support
for this prediction, but one is irrelevant. Which one of these
examples does not support the claim that species are related?
A) Many dinosaurs and other organisms went extinct
following a huge asteroid impact at the end of the
Cretaceous
B) The endostyle of lancelets (invertebrate chordates) and
the thyroid gland of vertebrates develop similarly, and both
produce iodinated proteins
C) All prokaryotes and eukaryotes use DNA to carry their
genetic information.
D) Ground squirrel species found on the north and south
sides of the Grand Canyon are very similar to each other
E) Before synthetic insulin was available, diabetics used
injections of purified pig insulin to manage their disease

Back 26

A) Many dinosaurs and other organisms went extinct
following a huge asteroid impact at the end of the
Cretaceous

Front 27

The best definition of Darwinian fitness is:
A. the ability of an individual to survive
B. the ability of a population of organisms to persist
C. the ability of an individual to stay healthy by
eating well-balanced meals and exercising
D. the ability of an individual to survive and
reproduce compared to others in the population

Back 27

D. the ability of an individual to survive and
reproduce compared to others in the population

Front 28

If you were to take a Yellow feather and a Blue feather and
crush each one into a powder, what color powder would
each feather yield?
A) yellow, gray-white
B) gray-white, gray-white
C) yellow, blue
D) gray-white, blue

Back 28

A) yellow, gray-white

Front 29

What is the Archaeopteryx recognized as?

Back 29

This was the first "bird" fossil from about 150 MYA during the Jurassic Period.

Front 30

What is true about the Archaeopteryx's feathers and what does this tell us?

Back 30

Archaeopteryx’s wing feathers were asymmetrically vaned for flight;
--not informative about where feathers came from, or about their primitive function

Front 31

What is hypothesis I of the evolution of feathers? Is it viable?

Back 31

Feathers evolved for flight
--Predicts that feathers evolved from elongated
reptilian scales (Probably not)

Front 32

What is hypothesis II of the evolution of feathers? Is it viable?

Back 32

Feathers evolved for insulation
--Predicts that feathers were a
fuzz that covered entire body (Possible)

Front 33

What is hypothesis III of the evolution of feathers? Is it viable?

Back 33

Feathers evolved for color signaling (i.e., communication)
--Predicts that early feathers were a colorful fuzz (Possible)

Front 34

What is some evidence that
dinosaurs may have evolved feathers for insulation before they were used for flight?

Back 34

--Downy feathers (not used for flight) covered the whole body of a therapod fossil discovered
--Downy feathers covered
body, and ornamental
tail feathers not for flight
--Evidence that dinosaurs may have evolved feathers for display (elaborate tail feathers)

Front 35

What is something that should be noted about depictions of dinosaurs today?

Back 35

Dinos had FEATHERS; the colors are based on the whim of artist; sometimes there may be evidence of bands of dark and light but not the intense color choices some artists use

Front 36

What branches off after Coelurosaurs in its taxonomic tree?

Back 36

Tyrannosaruoids; then at the tips of those branches after it are Dromaeosaurs, Archaeopteryx, and Other birds

Front 37

Hierarchically, birds are classified as:
A) Theropod, Coelurosaurs
B) Archeosaur, Dinosaur, Saurishia, Theropod,
Coelurosaur, Maniraptor, Aves
C) Dinosaur, Theropod, Coelurosaur, Aves
D) All the above

Back 37

D) All the above

Front 38

What does fossil evidence suggest about the development of feathers?

Back 38

Feathers develop
from a ‘tubular’ feather germ
and follicle and therefore predicted that diversification of feathers proceeded through a
series of derived evolutionary
novelties in developmental
mechanisms

Front 39

What is the significance of a Theropod discovered with patterned feathers?

Back 39

(Simple bristles only found on its head, midline of the back, and tail -- and so feathers
could have only a limited function in insulation)
*Feather bristles showed evidence of banding pattern--a
potential signal!

Front 40

Based on the finding of melanosomes (in a particular
arrangement) in the feather keratin, what color could they
postulate that the feathers were:
A) Orange
B) Yellow
C) Blue
D) Iridescent

Back 40

D) Iridescent-melanin pigments make black, grey, brown, rufous colors, but also contribute to structural iridescence

Front 41

What are three important facts about melanin or melanosomes?

Back 41

-Melanin pigments are deposited in feathers as
organelles called melanosomes
- melanosomes are preserved in fossil feathers
- different melanasomes have different shapes

Front 42

What is Eumelanin?

Back 42

It is a type of melanosome: rod shaped and usually makes black, gray

Front 43

What is Pheomelanin?

Back 43

It is a type of melanosome: round and usually makes brown, rufous

Front 44

What is true about melanin and its affect on birds?

Back 44

--Melanin pigments are widely
distributed in extant birds
--Produce blacks, grays, and
brown-red colors

Front 45

What was the first step in trying to figure out how to color a dinosaur?

Back 45

First, researchers compared the shape and density of
melanosomes in extant birds to those found in their Theropod dinosaur

Front 46

What did researchers use SEM for when trying to figure out how to color a dinosaur?

Back 46

With SEM, they imaged
samples of feathers from black, gray, and rufous plumage

Front 47

What did researchers graph when trying to figure out how to color a dinosaur and what did they notice?

Back 47

--Researchers plotted
melanosome shape vs.
density from feathers of
different colors
--Using color-coordinated points to their sampled feathers, they found a clear
clustering of color types

Front 48

How did researchers actually assign color to dinosaurs? (the last step of the research process?)

Back 48

Using the same techniques for the dinos and the extant birds, researchers mapped
melanosomes onto the graph made from extant bird feathers
--assigned color to each numbered point from the dino
-painted colors on fossil reconstruction based on where the melanosomes were
sampled

Front 49

What concluding statement can be made after considering all of the hypotheses and evidence of dinosaur feathers?

Back 49

Color display likely played an important role in the early evolution of feathers.

Front 50

Given a population that contains genetic variation, what is
the correct sequence of the following events, under the
influence of natural selection?
1. Well-adapted individuals leave more offspring than do
poorly adapted individuals.
2. A change occurs in the environment.
3. Genetic frequencies within the population change.
4. Poorly adapted individuals have decreased survivorship.
A) 2 → 4 → 1 → 3
B) 4 → 2 → 1 → 3
C) 4 → 1 → 2 → 3
D) 4 → 2 → 3 → 1
E) 2 → 4 → 3 → 1

Back 50

A) 2 → 4 → 1 → 3

Front 51

To observe natural selection's effects on a population,
which of these must be true?
A) One must observe more than one generation of
the population.
B) The population must contain genetic variation.
C) Members of the population must increase or
decrease the use of some portion of their anatomy.
D) A and C only
E) A and B only

Back 51

E) A and B only

Front 52

Which of the following must exist in a population before
natural selection can act upon that population?
A) Genetic variation among individuals
B) Variation among individuals caused by
environmental factors
C) Sexual reproduction
D) B and C only
E) A, B, and C

Back 52

A) Genetic variation among individuals

Front 53

Which statement best describes the evolution of pesticide
resistance in a population of insects?
A) Individual members of the population slowly adapt to
the presence of the chemical by striving to meet the new
challenge.
B) All insects exposed to the insecticide begin to use a
formerly silent gene to make a new enzyme that breaks
down the insecticide molecules.
C) Insects observe the behavior of other insects that
survive pesticide application, and adjust their own
behaviors to copy those of the survivors.
D) Offspring of insects that are genetically resistant to the
pesticide become more abundant as the susceptible
insects die off.

Back 53

D) Offspring of insects that are genetically resistant
to the pesticide become more abundant as the
susceptible insects die off.

Front 54

What is the most important concept in biology? Who proposed it?

Back 54

The theory of evolution by natural selection, jointly
proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in
1858, is the most important concept in all of biology

Front 55

What did Darwin base his arguments on?

Back 55

Darwin had no examples of the action of natural selection, so he based his arguments
on artificial selection by plant and animal breeders

Front 56

What is the definition of Evolution?

Back 56

Gene (or allele) frequency change over time

Front 57

What are the major mechanisms of evolution?

Back 57

• Natural Selection (differential reproduction)
• Gene flow (migration)
• Genetic drift (random events)
• Mutation

Front 58

If organisms could increase their number geometrically, why don't they?

Back 58

their resources are limited (behind the logic of natural selection)

Front 59

What is true about populations and their growth?

Back 59

Populations have a capacity for exponential growth

Front 60

What was Thomas Malthus quoted saying about populations and their growth?

Back 60

“Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio.
Subsistence only increases in an arithmetical ratio.”

Front 61

What is another logic behind natural selection concerning individuals in a population?

Back 61

Variation exists among individuals in every species

Front 62

What is true about communication signals within species (specifically looking at individuals)? What is an example of this?

Back 62

--Communication signals are highly variable
--Face patterns of wasps communicate dominance

Front 63

What is true about variations concerning the logic behind natural selection?

Back 63

Many such variations within species can be transmitted from parent to offspring

Front 64

What is true about communication signals within species concerning relatedness between offspring and parents? What evidence supports this idea?

Back 64

--Communication signals are heritable.
--Offspring develop similar coloration to genetic parents, even when raised by foster mothers. (owls)

Front 65

What is true about variations that result in greater survival?

Back 65

This will mean these variations will have higher numbers of reproduction and the variation will increase in frequency as time passes

Front 66

What is true about strong or "attractive" communication signals?

Back 66

They result in greater reproduction and more ornamented individuals will have more offspring which means that parents will pass on these same traits to their offspring

Front 67

Does natural selection occur in a Lamarckian manner?

Back 67

NO! Individuals do not change during natural selection, populations do!

Front 68

What is the definition of natural selection?

Back 68

Natural selection is the differential success in survival and reproduction among individuals that vary in their
heritable traits, causing a change in the genetic makeup of a population

Front 69

Can evolution occur without
natural selection?

Back 69

YES-there are other
mechanisms of evolution

Front 70

Can natural selection occur
without evolution?

Back 70

YES-some traits that cause
differential reproduction are
not heritable

Front 71

What does natural selection explain?

Back 71

It explains the diversity of life?

Front 72

What gives rise to adaptation?

Back 72

Only Natural Selection

Front 73

What is the definition of a phenotype?

Back 73

Phenotype: A trait (or value of a trait, i.e., longer tail) that confers higher fitness to individuals within the population with that trait/trait value

Front 74

What is the definition of a process?

Back 74

A process of genetic change in
a population where, due to natural selection, the average state of a trait becomes improved with reference to a
specific function

Front 75

How do we recognize adaptations?

Back 75

1. Fit of form and function
2. Comparative method (convergent vs. divergent evolution)

Front 76

What is convergent evolution?

Back 76

Evolution of similar traits in similar environments, in
distantly related organisms

Front 77

What is divergent evolution?

Back 77

Evolution of differing traits in different environments, in
closely related organisms

Front 78

What is important to note about adaptations?

Back 78

Important to realize that not all features originally evolved
as adaptations for their current function
- Original function can be co-opted to serve a new function

Front 79

Selection is blind to the _______,
but acts on the _______
A) phenotype, genotype
B) genotype, phenotype
C) genotype, population
D) population, phenotype

Back 79

B) genotype, phenotype OR
D) population, phenotype

Front 80

Which of the following is the most predictable outcome
of increased gene flow between two populations?
A) Lower average fitness in both populations
B) Higher average fitness in both populations
C) Increased genetic difference between the two
populations
D) Decreased genetic difference between the two
populations
E) Increased genetic drift

Back 80

D) Decreased genetic difference between the two
populations

Front 81

Which populations would be affected most by
random genetic drift?
A) Large populations
B) Small populations
C) Migrating populations
D) Fixed populations

Back 81

B) Small populations
Random genetic drift affects allele frequencies more
drastically as population size decreases

Front 82

A population is _____.
A) Many individuals of the same species
B) A group of individuals of the same species that
live in the same area and can potentially interbreed
C) A group of interacting species that live in the same
area
D) Two or more groups that regularly interbreed

Back 82

B) A group of individuals of the same species that
live in the same area and can potentially interbreed

Front 83

Which of the following examples of natural selection in
action would tend to increase the genetic variation in the
population?
A) Natural selection causes dragonflies to evolve
longer tails.
B) Lupines evolve large flowers above the
timberline and small flowers below the timberline.
C) Natural selection simultaneously selects against
heavy field mice (they starve during winter) and
light field mice (they freeze during winter).
D) Natural selection acts on beak size in finches such
that those individuals able to eat small, soft seeds
survive through the winter.

Back 83

B) Lupines evolve large flowers above the
timberline and small flowers below the timberline.
Disruptive selection or selection for extreme phenotypes
tends to increase variation in that trait

Front 84

An earthquake decimates a ground-squirrel population.
The surviving population happens to have broader stripes
on average than the initial population. If broadness of
stripes is genetically determined, what effect has the
ground-squirrel population experienced during the
earthquake?
A) Directional selection
B) Disruptive selection
C) A founder event
D) A genetic bottleneck
E) Gene flow

Back 84

D) A genetic bottleneck - a type of genetic drift

Front 85

What is the first limit to adaptation that concerns genes?

Back 85

Natural selection can only lead to evolutionary change when there is genetic variation for traits that affect fitness
-A change selection pressures (e.g., due to change in the
environment) can only lead to adaptation for traits
already present in the gene pool.

Front 86

What might happen as a result of strong natural selection for a certain trait?

Back 86

Under strong selection
for a certain phenotype/genotype, the
genetic diversity in the
population disappears
-Less successful
genotypes disappear
from a population

Front 87

What causes the phenotypic variation between parents and their offspring?

Back 87

this phenotypic variation could be due to genetic variation or environmental variation

Front 88

Are traits perfectly heritable?

Back 88

NO--Traits are generally not perfectly heritable
-Offspring are not a perfect representation of their parents (consider humans)

Front 89

What is the definition of heritability?

Back 89

Proportion of phenotypic variation (in a given population) due to genetic variation

Front 90

What is the heritability equation? What does it do?

Back 90

This estimates the role of genes in phenotypic variation. Equation: h2 = VG/VP

Front 91

What is the range of h2 values?

Back 91

h2 values range: 0 to 1

Front 92

What are two methods that can be used to estimate heritability in addition to the heritability equation?

Back 92

1) Parent-offspring regression
2) Response to selection (breeder’s equation)

Front 93

What is a parent-offspring regression?

Back 93

It is a scatterplot graph of Midparent Trait Value (x) vs. Offspring Trait Value (y) and the slope of the line = h2

Front 94

What is the breeder's equation?

Back 94

Use to assess how much shift in phenotype is possible
following selection.

Breeder’s Equation:
h2 = R / S
R = Response to selection
S = Selection differential

Front 95

What does the S in the breeder's equation stand for and how do you calculate it?

Back 95

Selection differential (S): ABS
difference b/t mean of selected
individuals and initial mean (ex:
Initial mean=10, Subset chosen for breeding mean= 16, 16-10=6)

Front 96

What does the R in the breeder's equation stand for and how do you calculate it?

Back 96

Response to selection (R)=ABS difference in means (ex: Initial mean=10, New generation’s mean=14, 14-10=4)

Front 97

In studies of genetically identical inbred
animals, all traits have ____ heritability
A) moderately low
B) very low
C) moderately high
D) very high
E) zero

Back 97

E) zero: if all were genetically
identical, there would be no genetic
variance, so VG=0 (h2 = VG/VP)

Front 98

What is one potential environmental cause to a high heritability number?

Back 98

h2 HIGH can result from lack of environmental variation (consider the example of wintertime high heritability of skin color because children are not tanned at the beach)

Front 99

Is heritability fixed?

Back 99

h2 is not a fixed measure. It can vary with environment:
Exposure of kids, but not parents to sun (at beach)
decreases heritability over time in the same population

Front 100

Say you’re a zookeeper monitoring two populations of lions, one with all robust individuals (Tanzania), and one with all scrawny individuals (Kenya). You find that there are high values of
heritability for body-condition in both populations.
h2 = 0.82
Tanzania
h2 = 0.85
Kenya
Does this mean that body condition is largely
genetically determined, and so you should select breeding stock from Tanzania population?
A. Yes
B. No
C. I don’t have the foggiest clue

Back 100

B. No--High h2 could be due to a lack of environmental variation within each population
(one could be constantly good, the other constantly bad)-- condition could still
respond to environment

Front 101

What is the definition of genetic drift?

Back 101

Random change in allele
frequencies over generations brought about by chance

Front 102

How does genetic drift limit adaptation?

Back 102

How drift limits adaptation
In the absence of other forces, drift leads to loss of genetic diversity
-alleles that are beneficial but occur at low frequencies can become lost

Front 103

What is fixation?

Back 103

This is related to genetic drift where some alleles can either become fixated or dissappear due to random changes.

Front 104

What is the affect of genetic drift on small populations?

Back 104

Magnitude of drift is greatest in small populations
-Small populations reach fixation quickly

Front 105

What is an example of evolutionary history being a limit to adaptation?

Back 105

Adaptation is be subject to historical constraints.
EX: Both food and air pass
through the pharynx
= Choking hazard

Front 106

What is the definition of pleiotropy?

Back 106

Pleiotropy: a single gene affects multiple phenotypic traits

Front 107

What is the consequence to pleiotropy?

Back 107

Consequence: Selection in one direction on one trait
can be constrained by selection in another direction
for a different trait

Front 108

Why is fox domestication a good example of pleiotropy?

Back 108

Artificial selection for a single
behavioral trait – tamability – resulted in a suite of changes
• Gene(s) for tamability have
pleiotropic effects
– tamability highly regulated by
hormones, which alter much of
morphology and physiology

Front 109

What physical traits changed with the fox domestication experiment?

Back 109

Loss of pigmentation, floppy ears, rolled tails, skulls smaller (less sexual dimorphism), snouts shorter and wider

Front 110

What physiological traits changed in the fox domestication experiment?

Back 110

– ↓ adrenaline (less flight response)
– ↓ corticosteroids (less stress)
– ↑ serotonin (inhibition of aggressive behavior)

Front 111

What was the impact of hormonal changes in the fox domestication experiment?

Back 111

Retention of juvenile physical characteristics

Front 112

How might the "Frizzle" gene be a good example of pleiotrophy?

Back 112

Pleiotropic ‘Frizzle’ gene produces feathers that curl
outward, BUT ALSO causes: abnormal body temperatures, higher metabolic rate, and fewer eggs

Front 113

Why is testosterone in dark-eyed juncos not held at physiological maximum, even though males do benefit from elevated T?

Back 113

Selection for greater male solicitation of extra-pair paternity, would have pleiotropic effects on a suite of other fitnessdepressing traits, including:
--less paternal care given at home nest
--less defense of predators
--more stress response (may lead to lower survivorship)

Front 114

How can pleiotropy be “broken”?

Back 114

For example, mutations can
arise for gene duplication (within gene families) which can lead to copies that can separately code for each trait

Front 115

What is another limit to adaptation concerning selective pressures?

Back 115

Trade-offs

Front 116

How are trade-offs a limit to adaptation?

Back 116

Trade-offs: Multiple selective pressures can act on a given trait
- Phenotype is determined by a trade-off between conflicting
demands

Front 117

What is a good example of a trade-off? (think of Darwin)

Back 117

Darwin’s Finches use their bills for:
- Food gathering
- Song
-Selection for increasing bill
size leads to a decrease in
singing performance

Front 118

How is reproduction a limit to adapation? What are the consequences of fast and slow reproduction?

Back 118

Reproductive capacity limits a population’s ability to adapt
-If reproduce quickly (insects, bacteria) then population can
adapt to changes in a short time
-If reproduce slowly (elephants, tigers, corals) then it takes thousands or millions of years to adapt

Front 119

What is a limit to adaptation considering time?

Back 119

Time lag: Response to selection takes many generations,thus many current traits may have evolved in response to
a different past environment and are in the process of
being selected against

Front 120

Which of the following could be a vicariance event
for a species?
A) The level of water in a lake recedes, creating
two lakes where there used to be one
B) Some insects get blown in a storm to a new
mountain range, where they lay eggs
C) Radiation near Chernobyl increases mutation
rate, causing an increase in migration behavior
D) All of the above

Back 120

A) The level of water in a lake recedes, creating two lakes where there used to be one

Front 121

A subset of a population of birds leaves its habitat on the
mainland and colonizes a nearby island. The birds, after a
period of time, become reproductively isolated. The island
sinks and the population of birds that lived on the island
returns to its original habitat. Which of the following
statements about these bird populations is true?
A) The populations will not be able to interbreed because
they are different species
B) The birds were separated by a vicariance event
C) The populations were sympatric while they diverged
D) The populations will be able to interbreed even though
they are different species

Back 121

A) The populations will not be able to interbreed
because they are different species-they already became
reproductively isolated (i.e., some genetic difference that
prevents interbreeding)

Front 122

A small number of birds arrive on an island from a
neighboring larger island. This small population
begins to adapt to the new food plants available on
the island, and their beaks begin to change. About
twice a year, one or two more birds from the
neighboring island arrive. What effect do these new
arrivals have?
A) Their arrival speeds the process of speciation
B) Their arrival tends to promote adaptation to the
new food plants
C) Their arrival tends to retard adaptation to the
new food plants
D) Their arrival represents a colonizing event

Back 122

C) Their arrival tends to retard adaptation to
the new food plants-Increased gene flow
homogenizes differences between populations

Front 123

When is reinforcement beneficial?
A) when populations would otherwise fuse over time
B) when hybrids have lower fitness than either
parent population
C) when prezygotic isolating mechanisms are in
place
D) when one population could be overwhelmed by
the other
E) reinforcement is beneficial under all of the above
conditions

Back 123

B) when hybrids have lower fitness than either parent population-Natural selection for traits that keep distinct populations from reproducing with each other (because of costs of hybrids) is called
reinforcement

Front 124

Imagine two populations descended from a single bird species.
After a period of isolation in allopatry, the populations resume
inhabiting the same region. Assuming that the only differences
between the populations are those listed, which of the following
factors would most likely prevent interbreeding?
A) Population A rests in the upper branches of trees during
foraging bouts; population B rests on the ground.
B) Population A forages by picking insects off leaves;
population B forages by tearing open ant nests.
C) Population A performs its mating calls in the upper
branches of trees; population B performs them on the ground.
D) Population A nests in oak trees; population B nests in
maple trees.

Back 124

C) Population A performs its mating calls in the upper
branches of trees; population B performs them on the
ground. -- this is only option that leads to reproductive isolation

Front 125

What is directional selection?

Back 125

Changes average value
of a trait (increase or
decrease) in a population

Front 126

What is stabilizing selection?

Back 126

Stabilizing selection
Maintains intermediate phenotypes in a population (note average remains the same)

Front 127

What are the consequences of stabilizing selection?

Back 127

Reduces population genetic diversity over time as alleles
that specify extreme forms are eliminated

Front 128

What is a consequence of directional selection?

Back 128

Reduces population
genetic diversity over time

Front 129

What was the blue tit experiment and what was it testing?

Back 129

**Has selection
optimized avian clutch size?**
Prediction:
• Changing (adding &
subtracting) number
of eggs will reduce
fitness (i.e. offspring
survival)
• Experiment:
• Add and remove
chicks to test whether
optimal clutch size is
what we see in nature

Front 130

What does a cost-benefit analysis graph look like?

Back 130

It is a graph of clutch size (x) vs. units of fitness (y) where the benefits are represented linearly and costs rise in a gentle upward curve.

Front 131

What is the general conclusion of a cost-benefit analysis?

Back 131

No organism has an infinite amount of energy to spend
on its activities.

Front 132

What is disruptive selection?

Back 132

Intermediate phenotypes
are selected against and
extremes are favored

Front 133

What are the consequences of disruptive selection?

Back 133

--Increases population genetic diversity over time.
--Disruptive selection can cause populations to diverge
and this can lead to new species (aka speciation)

Front 134

What are the benthic and limnetic three-spined sticklebacks examples of?

Back 134

--They are examples of disruptive selection! ('large' benthic living in littoral zone *shoreline*; 'small' limnetic living in limnetic zone *open water*)
--Descended from common
ancestor
--Assortative mating led to
speciation (mating like with
like; non-random mating)

Front 135

What is assortive mating?

Back 135

This is mating like with like, aka non-random mating.

Front 136

Which of the following does not tend to promote
speciation?
A) the founder effect
B) gene flow
C) natural selection
D) drift

Back 136

B) gene flow

Front 137

How likely is divergence of populations? What would you use to estimate this?

Back 137

The amount of gene flow between groups relative to
the strength of divergent selection combine to determine whether speciation can occur.
--Use a graph of probability of speciation (x) vs. strength of process (y) for positive linear slope of "intensity of divergent selection" and a negative linear slope "degree of gene flow" of cross in an X where speciation is more likely on the right side of the graph.

Front 138

What is the narrow definition of a species?

Back 138

a large and distinct gene pool

Front 139

What is the broad definition of a species?

Back 139

group of organisms that share a common evolutionary history and are capable of interbreeding within their group and are not capable of interbreeding with other groups

Front 140

If the Happy Face Spiders look so different, why do we consider them to be the same species?

Back 140

They can interbreed

Front 141

What is a morphological species?

Back 141

Morphological species: a group of organisms with a
distinct form from other groups of organisms

Front 142

What are the pros of the Morphological Species Concept?

Back 142

Pros:
--Easy to administer
--Can be used for asexual
sp. and for fossils

Front 143

What are the cons of the Morphological Species Concept?

Back 143

Cons:
--Morphology is not a great indicator of ancestry (problem with convergence)
--Morphology is not always a great indicator of affiliation within a species

Front 144

What is a phylogenetic species?

Back 144

Phylogenetic species: Smallest diagnosable cluster of organisms within which there is a shared pattern of ancestry and descent (i.e., the smallest monophyletic group)

Front 145

What are the cons of the Phylogenetic Species Concept?

Back 145

Cons:
--Phylogenies are unavailable for most groups (constructing
rigorous phylogenies is difficult, expensive and time consuming)

Front 146

What are the pros of the Phylogenetic Species Concept?

Back 146

Pros:
--Species defined by shared
evolutionary history
--Testable
--Can be used for asexual sp.
and for fossils

Front 147

Does the Phylogentic Species Concept "split" species indefinitely?

Back 147

NO--Ex: The 3 “C” populations
cannot be distinguished
by unique, derived characters. Thus, they represent a single
phylogenetic species

Front 148

A storm brings two formerly separated populations of
amazonian frogs together. They look very similar. Under
the biological species concept, which of the following
would suggest that the two populations are different
species?
A) One population breeds in spring, the other in fall.
B) Males of the two populations have different call
patterns in courtship.
C) When individuals from the two populations mate with
each other in the laboratory, the eggs fail to hatch.
D) All of the above is correct.
E) None of the above is correct.

Back 148

D) All of the above is correct.

Front 149

The common edible frog of Europe is a hybrid between two
species, Rana lessonae and Rana ridibunda. The hybrids have a
wide distribution across central Europe. When hybrids mate, their
offspring are rarely successful in producing offspring. What can
you infer from this information?
A) Postzygotic isolation exists between the two frog species.
B) Prezygotic isolation exists between the two frog species.
C) These two species are likely in the process of fusing back
into one species.
D) The hybrids form a separate species under the biological species concept.

Back 149

A) Postzygotic isolation exists between the two frog
species.

Front 150

Imagine two North American tree frog species that contact
each other as the southern species moves northward during
a period of global warming. These two species do not mate
much, due to differences in their courtship calls. The
northern frog does not tolerate the warmer temperatures well
but is limited in its ability to move north because it does not
normally disperse much. Based on this information, which is
the most likely outcome?
A) fusion of the populations
B) reinforcement
C) hybrid zone formation
D) extinction of one of the species
E) creation of a new species

Back 150

D) extinction of one of the species

Front 151

Male leopard frogs give calls that attract female frogs to
approach and mate. Researchers examined mating calls of
closely related leopard frogs in South America. What
outcomes can occur where the ranges of two species
overlap?
A) The species will interbreed, eventually fusing over time.
B) A stable hybrid zone will form if hybrids are better
adapted to the area of overlap than either parent species is.
C) Species will continue to diverge and be isolated by
behavioral or genetic mechanisms.
D) All of the above is possible outcomes.
E) None of the above is a possible outcome.

Back 151

D) All of the above is possible outcomes.

Front 152

What is a biological species?

Back 152

Biological species: groups of actually or potentially
interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

Front 153

What are the pros to the Biological Species Concept?

Back 153

Pros:
--Defined by actual, or potential for, gene flow between populations
--Can be tested in the field

Front 154

What are the cons to the Biological Species Concept?

Back 154

Cons:
--Can not be used for asexual sp. and for fossils
--Difficult to determine reproductive isolation of allopatric populations (i.e., not clear how to categorize species with disjointed ranges)
--Interbreeding populations may still be evolving independently

Front 155

What is speciation?

Back 155

Speciation: a lineage-splitting event that produces two or
more separate species (i.e., evolution of two or more
species from a single ancestral species)

Front 156

What is anagenesis?

Back 156

Anagenesis = gradual changes in an ancestral species lead to its eventual "replacement" by a novel form (not usually
considered speciation)

Front 157

What is cladogenesis?

Back 157

Cladogenesis = splitting of a lineage (speciation)

Front 158

What two ways cause speciation?

Back 158

1. Isolation: gene flow is restricted between previously
cohesive groups
2. Divergence: evolutionary forces alter traits differently
in each group

Front 159

What are the mechanisms that lead to genetic divergence in populations that become isolated from one another?

Back 159

--Genetic drift: especially in small populations, strongest during founder effect
--Natural selection: especially if isolation leads to different selection pressures
--Sexual selection: if female mate-preference and male ornaments diverge between populations

Front 160

What is allopatric speciation?

Back 160

Allopatric speciation:
Something extrinsic prevents two or more groups from mating with each other. Isolation might occur due to great separating distance, or a physical barrier (such as a desert, river, glacier)

Front 161

What are the two general forms of geographic isolation (allopatric speciation)?

Back 161

1) Vicariance- A previously
cohesive population is split
via a physical barrier
2) Peripatry- A dispersal event occurs, and usually a small number of individuals colonizes a new habitat

Front 162

What is vicariance?

Back 162

Vicariance: a previously
cohesive population is split
via a physical barrier
Examples: changing river
courses, rising of mountains, drying of seas, forest fragmentation, lava flows

Front 163

What is peripatry?

Back 163

Peripatry: A dispersal event occurs, and usually a small number of individuals colonizes a new habitat
Founders are often different from main population due to genetic drift (founder effect)

Front 164

What is parapatry or parapatric speciation?

Back 164

Parapatry (not Peripatry)
There are no specific
extrinsic barrier to gene flow.
The population is continuous,
but the population does not
mate randomly: Individuals
are more likely to mate with
their geographic neighbors

Front 165

What is a ring species?

Back 165

Ring species: species with
a geographic distribution that forms a ring and overlaps at the ends.

Front 166

What is an example of parapatric speciation?

Back 166

Subspecies of Ensatina
salamanders (in California and the differences between those on the coast and inside the state)

Front 167

What is sympatric speciation?

Back 167

Sympatric speciation:
Speciation that occurs between populations occupying the same
range

Front 168

What are the 7 prezygotic isolating mechanisms?

Back 168

1). divergent selection and
assortative mating by type
--examples:
ex) sticklebacks limnetic & benthic, Amazonian frog
2) difference in timing of mating
3) mechanical differences: Usually due to physical
differences in copulation structures
4) ecological or habitat differences: populations
occur in the same geographic area (on a
macroscale) but use different habitats within
(microscale)
5) behavioral differences
6) ornamentation differences
7) Gamete incompatibility: gamete transfer occurs
but fertilization does not. Often due to factors such
as cellular architecture variation

Front 169

What are postzygotic isolating mechanisms?

Back 169

hybrid sterility, reduced hybrid fertility, increased hybrid mortality (ex: sterile mule which is offspring of male donkey and female horse)

Front 170

What happens if groups that diverged reconnect?

Back 170

If groups reconnect, evolved differences are accentuated
by selection (change from allopatric to sympatric but do not interbreed which means that speciation has occurred)

Front 171

Considering character displacement, what is reinforcement?

Back 171

Reinforcement: avoid mating with other incipient species to avoid costs of hybridization. Often favors traits that promote assortative mating

Front 172

What is niche based character displacement?

Back 172

Niche based character
displacement: species become
more different so as to fit into
respective ecological niches
(reduces competitive overlap)

Front 173

How do females tell the difference between Western and Eastern Meadowlarks that
appear to be identical with overlapping ranges?

Back 173

their distinct songs prevent females from choosing wrong species as a mate

Front 174

How do the songs of sympatry and allopatry compare?

Back 174

Songs in sympatry are more different from songs in allopatry

Front 175

A biologist doing a long-term study on tail length in a
population of motmots observes increased variation in
tail length over time. She hypothesizes that the
population is experiencing ________.
A) directional selection.
B) stabilizing selection.
C) disruptive selection.
D) sexual selection.
E) genetic drift.

Back 175

C) disruptive selection.

Front 176

Male turkeys have a snood, which is a flap of skin that
hangs across their beak. Snood length is negatively
correlated with parasite load (i.e., males with longer
snoods have fewer parasites), and females prefer to mate
with long-snooded males. This is an example of:
A) the fundamental asymmetry of sex.
B) sexual selection via female choice.
C) sexual selection via male-male competition.
D) stabilizing selection.
E) all the above.

Back 176

B) sexual selection via female choice

Front 177

Which statement most fully characterizes the fundamental
asymmetry of sex?
A) Female fitness is limited mostly by the ability to get
resources for producing eggs and rearing young, while male
fitness is limited by the ability to attract females.
B) Female fitness is limited mostly by the ability to attract
males, while male fitness is limited by the ability to get
resources for provisioning the female.
C) Female fitness is limited mostly by the ability to get
resources for producing eggs and rearing young, while male
fitness is limited by the ability to get resources for provisioning
the female.
D) Female fitness is limited mostly by the ability to attract
males, and male fitness is limited by the ability to attract
females.

Back 177

A) Female fitness is limited mostly by the ability to get
resources for producing eggs and rearing young, while
male fitness is limited by the ability to attract females.

Front 178

Sexual dimorphism is most often a result of
A) pansexual selection.
B) stabilizing selection.
C) intrasexual selection.
D) disruptive selection.
E) artificial selection.

Back 178

C) intrasexual selection.

Front 179

What are the 2 types of behavioral research
questions?

Back 179

1). Proximate = HOW?
2). Ultimate = WHY?

Front 180

What is proximate behavioral research?

Back 180

Proximate = HOW?
how does behavior develop;
how do genetic, physiological,
and anatomical mechanisms
underly the behavior?

Front 181

What is ultimate behavioral research?

Back 181

Ultimate = WHY?
why did behavior evolve: from
an ancestral perspective what
gave rise to the behavior
(evolutionary history); why
does the behavior increase
fitness?

Front 182

What is the nature vs. nuture debate?

Back 182

There IS NOT one! It's BOTH! Behavioral traits are the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors

Front 183

What does artifical selection show about behavioral genetics?

Back 183

Artificial selection shows that behavioral differences among individuals often result from genetic differences
– Genetics of learning (ex: fast and slow rat populations)

Front 184

What is vasopressin (VP)? What experiment was it used with?

Back 184

This is a hormone that effects memory. Only prairie voles responded to VP because this species has genes for many VP receptors. Transgenic mice had similar responses to prairie voles.

Front 185

What is anisogamy?

Back 185

This is the inherent difference in gamete size between males and females.

Front 186

What is the fundamental asymmetry of the sexes?

Back 186

females usually invest more (fewer eggs that require much more energy to make) in offspring than do males (lots of sperm and require less energy to make)

Front 187

What are the 3 important consequences of anisogamy?

Back 187

***Consequence 1:
--Female reproductive success is limited by access
to resources (each egg is precious)
--Male reproductive success is limited by access to mates (sperm are not costly)
***Consequence 2:
--Males have far higher potential maximum reproductive success than females
***Consequence 3
--Male reproductive success is more variable than female
reproductive success
--Result: differential reproduction due to phenotypic
variation is far greater in males! This is sexual selection.

Front 188

What is sexual selection?

Back 188

Sexual selection: Differential reproduction (due to phenotypic variation) that arises from the acquisition of more mates, or better quality mates

Front 189

What does anisogamy lead to? (differences in gamete investment between males and females)

Back 189

Higher mating competition in the sex whose reproduction is limited by access to mates (usually males)
--Males selected to invest in traits that increase probability of mating: ornaments & armaments
--Female selected to invest in traits that increase probability of offspring survival as each offspring is limited (i.e., parental care, choosing ‘best’ mate)

Front 190

What are the two main kinds of sexual selection?

Back 190

1) Intrasexual selection: “Contest-competition”
--usually male vs male
2) Intersexual selection: “Mate-choice-competition”
--usually male vs male

Front 191

What is intrasexual selection?

Back 191

“Contest-competition”
--usually male vs male

Front 192

What is intersexual selection?

Back 192

“Mate-choice-competition”
--usually male vs male

Front 193

What does sexual selection lead to?

Back 193

Sexual Dimorphism: differences between males and females

Front 194

What are the direct benefits females gain from choice?

Back 194

Direct benefits: Actual resources that males provide (i.e., food, paternal care: feeding or protection of offspring)

Front 195

What are the indirect benefits females gain from choice?

Back 195

Indirect benefits: Females chose males that provide heritable beneficial traits to their offspring (i.e. good genes)

Front 196

What do extra-pair copulations (EPCs) in Red-winged Blackbirds tell us about female choice?

Back 196

--Females seek good-genes.
--Although half of all nests contained at least one EPC hatchling, females gain NO DIRECT benefits from EPC males

Front 197

What are the evolutionary advantages of extra-pair copulations? (EPCs)

Back 197

--Males: increased reproductive success
--Females: offspring receive genes from genetically superior
individual

Front 198

Which of the following is an example (or are examples)
of intersexual sexual selection?
A) male katydids choosing larger female katydids
B) large male elephant seals monopolizing female
harems
C) female junglefowl preferring dominant males
D) a and c
E) all the above

Back 198

D) a and c

Front 199

Which of the following describes an organism’s
relative fitness?
a) survival
b) number of matings
c) adaptation to the environment
d) successful competition of resources
e) relative number of offspring

Back 199

e) relative number of offspring

Front 200

During breeding season, one should expect female house
finches to prefer to mate with males with the brightest red
feathers. Which of the following terms are appropriately
applied to this situation?
A) Intrasexual selection
B) Handicap signaling
C) Direct benefits
D) Only B and C
E) All the above

Back 200

D) Only B and C

Front 201

What is true about offspring that are born from more ornamented males?

Back 201

Offspring that are from more
ornamented males grow faster and have higher survival

Front 202

What is an example of sexual selection with color signaling of birds?

Back 202

Size of bright patches
influences male territory size
and thus, attractiveness (Yellow-browed Warbler)

Front 203

Considering animal communication, what are signals?

Back 203

--Signals are adaptations used for communication
--Specifically, they are behavioral, physiological, or
morphological characteristics maintained by natural selection because they convey information

Front 204

What is true about the reciever of a signal?

Back 204

-- The signal must modify behavior of the receiver
-- Receiver response, on average, must benefit the sender (but no requirement with respect to receiver’s fitness)

Front 205

Are signals also known as cues?

Back 205

NO! Cues are any feature of the world, animate or inanimate, that can be used
as a guide to future action

Front 206

What are cues?

Back 206

Cues are any feature of the world, animate or inanimate, that can be used as a guide to future action

Front 207

If something is intended to provide information is it a cue or a signal?

Back 207

SIGNAL!

Front 208

What are some examples of cues?

Back 208

Examples of cues:
–Owl hears mouse rustling in leaves
–Your CO2 exhalations reveal your location to mosquitos

Front 209

How do male birds use their songs as signals? What are two examples?

Back 209

1). Fighting- Males communicate with males to defend territory
2). Flirting- Males communicate with females to attract partners

Front 210

Is animal communication cooperative interaction?

Back 210

Generally NO...Interest of sender and receiver are often incongruent

Front 211

How are sender and recievers of signals incongruent between animals?

Back 211

--Courtship: females often want best male, males want any/more matings
--Fighting: intimidate rivals without having to fight (fighting is risky)

Front 212

Concerning honesty in signals, what is the sender's perspective?

Back 212

Often it would pay to convey information that is
incomplete or even false (i.e., deception, dishonesty)

Front 213

Concerning honesty in signals, what is the reciever's perspective?

Back 213

Given that some signals are deceptive, this should impose selection pressure on receivers to extract reliable information from signals, and thus disregard unreliable information

Front 214

How can receivers distinguish
deceitful signals from reliable
signals? (hint: there are 3)

Back 214

Three signal types that maintain
signal honesty, and are thus
favored by receivers:
–1). Handicap signals
–2). Index signals
–3). Conventional signals

Front 215

What is the handicap model of signal evolution?

Back 215

only high quality
individuals can bear the cost of a large handicap
--Thus, males with the highest viability can display the
highest trait value

Front 216

What is a vulnerability handicap?

Back 216

--Performance places
sender at risk of attack: only
high quality males can fly
with an extravagant tail and
avoid predation (ex: long-tailed widowbird)

Front 217

What is a quality handicap?

Back 217

--Display intensity correlated with signaler quality
--Signal production is condition dependent
--Smaller differential benefit for low quality individuals (i.e., low quality individuals have pay a relatively higher cost for a given trait compared to higher quality individuals)

Front 218

What does the graph of the condition-dependent costs look like?

Back 218

It is a graph of signal intensity (x) vs. costs and benefits (y) where the benefits line is an increasing downward curve and cost is a positive linear line.

Front 219

What happens to the condition-dependent signal cost graph with low quality individuals compared to high quality?

Back 219

The costs for low quality signalers has a higher slope so there is a smaller difference between the benefit and the cost lines. That also means that the optimal signal strength is different (generally closer to the origin).

Front 220

What is the optimal signal strength in the condition-dependent signal cost graph?

Back 220

This is the point on the graph when the difference between the benefits and the costs are greatest.

Front 221

What are the production costs (costs when signal used/displayed) of signaling?

Back 221

--Conspicuousness to predators & parasites
--Energetic costs

Front 222

What are the development costs of signaling?

Back 222

--Energetic costs
(growth of antlers, long tails)
--Loss of limited nutrients
(carotenoids)

Front 223

What are the maintenance costs of signaling?

Back 223

(flying with long tail, preening)

Front 224

Which of the below costs is least likely to impose
honesty on bird song
A) use of energy
B) loss of time spent foraging
C) testosterone as immuno-suppressant
D) tradeoff of brain space devoted to song production
E) attracting predators

Back 224

D) tradeoff of brain space devoted to song production

Front 225

Natural selection will favor senders who elicit _________
response(s). From the signalers perspective, a display
may be viewed as a means of __________
A) beneficial, manipulation
B) costly, manipulation
C) beneficial, mutualism
D) costly, mutualism
E) any kind of, avoiding costs

Back 225

A) beneficial, manipulation

Front 226

Honesty can be maintained if _________
individuals pay _________ for a given level of
signal intensity than do high-quality individuals
A) high-quality, lower costs
B) low-quality, higher costs
C) high-quality, lower costs
D) low-quality, higher costs
E) average-quality

Back 226

B) low-quality, higher costs

Front 227

If all birds in a population signaled at same signal
intensity (e.g., same coloration), would that
signaling system be maintained by selection?
A) yes
B) no
C) not enough information to decide

Back 227

B) no

Front 228

What is true about the trade-off between allocation of carotenoids(C) to immune function and ornamentation?

Back 228

--Only males that can gain a C-rich diet, or that have a strong immune system, are capable of bearing the costs of using Cs for immune function while still have Cs left for ornamentation

Front 229

What happened in the experiment with the infected birds and their bill color?

Back 229

--Males infected & C+ supplemented maintained bill color
--Males infected & non-supplemented lost bill color

Front 230

What does plumage redness indicate? What does this tell us about males in general?

Back 230

--Plumage redness indicates foraging ability and viability (survival)
--Only males capable of bearing the cost of gaining access to ample quantity/quality of food (via competition) are capable of
exaggerated ornamentation

Front 231

What does the natural variation in male
house finch color look like?

Back 231

Their belly and head colors move from yellow to orange to red.

Front 232

What were the effects of experimental manipulation of the diets of captive birds?

Back 232

Their diet altered the color of their plumage.
--Carotenoid deficient diet (lightest orangeish brown color)
--β-carotenesupplemented
diet (more orange color)
--Canthaxanthinsupplemented
diet (deep red color)

Front 233

If redder male birds molt faster, then what does that suggest about them?

Back 233

Indicates that colorful
males are are nutritionally
superior

Front 234

What is also true about redder males and their survival rate?

Back 234

Redder males have higher
survival rates
--Average color increased
after an epidemic

Front 235

What is one visible trait that many female birds use to choose mates?

Back 235

"redness"; there was an experiment where male birds were lightened and darkened in their red color and the darkened males had more pairings that took less time to get.

Front 236

What is an index signal? What are some examples?

Back 236

The honesty of an index signal is maintained because the
signals is physiologically or physically constrained (i.e. they are unbluffable)
–EX: Depth of pitch and body size is correlated in many frogs, Scratch marks by grizzlies or tigers; Body size or armament size plays a role in contest competition: size of armament cannot be faked; Tracheal length constrained by body size: makes
especially loud, resonant noises

Front 237

What is a conventional sign? What are some examples?

Back 237

The honesty of a conventional signal is maintained by the threat
of receiver retaliation (i.e. if you bluff you get attacked). These signals convey information about dominance
EX: Black badge size indicates dominance,

Front 238

What are the 6 things that birds are saying with their vocalizations?

Back 238

1).Territorial defense
2).Resource defense (can be territory defense)
3).Species recognition
4). Individual recognition: Parent-offspring & mate recognition
5). Individual recognition: Neighbor/stranger recognition
6).Mate attraction

Front 239

What is the affect of experimental muting of birds?

Back 239

Experimental muting of
territorial male leads to greater intrusion rate by other males, and eventual loss of territories

Front 240

What do many voice rattles and variety tell you about a male?

Back 240

Only males with high
testosterone (high physiological investment in
aggression) vocalize with many rattles

Front 241

What is necessary in a computer generated song concerning bird responses?

Back 241

Birds respond to computer-generated songs only when they contained species-typical features (because songs announce what species birds are)

Front 242

What is the "Dear Enemy Effect?"

Back 242

Essentially, if neighbors move or change places, this causes the subject to freak out and increase the intensity and frequency of his songs. (remember the graphs from the slide)

Front 243

What aspects of vocalizations are informative, and what
kinds of information do they provide?

Back 243

Features of song to which receivers respond:
--Song output (duration or rate)
--Song complexity (repertoire size: syllables or song types)
--Vocal performance (the ability to push limits of physical and physiological
constraints)

Front 244

What does birds' song complexity often correlate with?

Back 244

Song complexity often correlates with reproductive success

Front 245

What type of songs do female birds prefer? Why?

Back 245

Females prefer males with complex songs
--Repertoire size indicative of parasite load
--Only males with good genes for (e.g., for immune system,
or to buffer stress of infection) can develop a complex song

Front 246

What is the affect of malaria on song birds during development?

Back 246

--Malaria infection reduces song complexity in canaries
--Birds infected with malaria during critical phases of development of higher vocal center (HVC) in the brain produced less complex
songs and had smaller HVCs

Front 247

What does the RA in a canary stand for?

Back 247

RA = Robust nucleus of the
Arcopallium (involved in adult
song production)

Front 248

What does HVC in a canary stand for?

Back 248

HVC = Higher Vocal Center nuclei (involved in song development)

Front 249

What is the affect of food and hormonal stress on birds?

Back 249

Food and hormonal stress during development reduce the size of the HVC in zebra finches

Front 250

What can song complexity signal about a bird's brain?

Back 250

Song complexity can signal neural complexity

Front 251

What can song complexity signal about a bird's brain?

Back 251

Song complexity can signal neural complexity

Front 252

What is the significance of Ornithurine birds according to the Zhou 2004 reading?

Back 252

Ornithurine birds are the only group of Mesozoic birds to have survived the K/T extinction

Front 253

How would you describe the heritability of male peacock's sexual dimorphisms according to the Petrie et al 2009 reading?

Back 253

All three traits associated with
sexual selection, train length, eyespot diameter and number
of eyespots, showed high levels of heritability in male peacocks (however only train length showed a significant value).

Front 254

What is the difference between an adaptation and an exaptation according to the Ketterson & Nolan 1999 reading?

Back 254

adaptation- A biological adaptation is an anatomical structure, physiological process or behavioral trait of an organism that has evolved over a period of time by the process of natural selection such that it increases the expected long-term reproductive success of the organism. (ex: giraffes evolving longer necks to reach tree leaves)

exaptation- an evolutionary process in which a given adaptation is first naturally selected for, and subsequently used by the organism for something other than its original, intended purpose (ex: evolving wings which would be useful for body temperature control, but useless for flying (they're too small) until they evolved larger)

Front 255

What is Oxytocin and what is it an example of according to the Ketterson & Nolan 1999 reading?

Back 255

Oxytocin (OT) is a peptide
hormone produced in the brain that has an effect on various behaviors and cell functions of rats/mice/etc which means that it is an example of pleiotropy.

Front 256

What is significant about Testosterone and what does it exemplify according to the Ketterson & Nolan 1999 reading?

Back 256

This not only exemplifies pleiotropy, but it also shows how in avian studies, testosterone has enhanced mating effort, suppressed parental effort, and
produced physiological consequences expected to shorten life span (conundrum of testosterone because although it is sexually selected for, it is selected against in natural selection).

Front 257

What was the result of the experiments about female choice in the Barraclough et al 1995 article?

Back 257

They tested the theory that predicts that sexual dichromatism in passerines has evolved through the action of female choice.

However, their results were inconclusive as to whether these sexually dimorphic traits evolved solely due to female choice. They suggested that part of the evolution could have occurred due to male plumage in addition to female choice. They cannot support the hypothesis that sexual selection by female choice has promoted cladogenesis (breaking off into two different species basically at a node)

Front 258

What are the three "lines of evidence" that the Boul et al 2007 article refers to and what conclusion does it make?

Back 258

1). sexual selection has promoted divergence in male mating calls and female preferences for calls between neighbouring populations
2). phylogenetic
analysis indicates that populations have become fixed for alternative call types several times throughout the
species’ range
3). estimated gene flow demonstrates genetic divergence and incipient speciation
Therefore, sexual selection is
driving behavioural isolation and speciation among populations of an Amazonian frog.

Front 259

What conclusions do the field studies on house finches in the Hill 1991 article come to?

Back 259

Field studies show that female house finches prefer to mate with colorful males. Also, plumage brightness and coloration correlates with a male's capacity for parental care and generally its genotypic quality.

Front 260

What did the McGraw & Ardia 2007 reading end up discovering about testosterone?

Back 260

Testosterone (T) is an important honesty reinforcer of animal sexual signals because of its immunosuppressive effects; only those individuals that can immunologically withstand
high T levels can develop the most exaggerated traits. Also, their findings show that those zebra finches with carotenoid supplementation were able to mobilize carotenoids for their immune system and the high cost of T (T-implants) while maintaining high levels of ornamentation.

Front 261

What resulted from the blackbird experimentation reported about in the Baeta et al 2008 reading? Why is this significant?

Back 261

They used a host-parasite model to show that supplemented males circulated more carotenoids in the blood and developed more brightly coloured bills than unsupplemented males. This is significant because this shows how animals face a trade-off in carotenoid allocation between immune functions and degree of ornamentation.

Front 262

What are the 7 "limiting costs or constraints" of bird songs that are mentioned in the GIl & Gahr 2002 reading?

Back 262

1). energy
2). social aggression
3). predation
4). age/experience
5). Neural costs
6). Immune/Hormonal costs
7). Physical and developmental constraints

Front 263

What was significant about the experiment and the conclusions that the Nowicki et al 2002 reading come to about male bird songs? What myth did they address in their work?

Back 263

Their results provide the first experimental demonstration that variation in learning abilities among males plays a functionally important part in the expression of a sexually selected trait (bird songs), and further provide support for the hypothesis that song functions
as an indicator of male quality because it rejects variation in response to early developmental stress. They addressed the idea that male traits are based on a complex combination of environmental and genetic factors (correcting the nature vs. nurture myth).