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102 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Describe a Nucleotide
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The basic building block of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. It is an organic compound made up of nitrogenous base, a 5 carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
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What are the two types of nitrogenous bases?
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Purine and Pyrimidines
(Trinity college is not TWO pure) |
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Name the types of energy used in a cell
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ATP, TTP, GTP, CTP
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What is the sugar difference between RNA and DNA?
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DNA contains deoxyribose.
Oxygen of 2’ carbon missing in dna. (Deoxy, means missing oxygen) RNA contains Ribose |
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when you go from simple to complex, you need to put in [?]
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Energy
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when you go from complex to simple, you [?]
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give off energy
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[?1] nucleotides have higher energy stantes than [?2] nucleotides
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1) Connected
2) individual |
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What is the role of Phosphate bonds?
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energy containing bonds, which are broken and their energy donated to to build long polymer bonds
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What element is gotten rid of to form bonds?
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Oxygen
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What is a Nucleotide?
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molecules that, when joined, make up the individual structural units of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA.
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Where does the energy for polymerization come from?
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Phosphate bonds
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From which direction is the DNA template 1) read 2) Synthesized
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1) 3’ to 5’ (upstream)
2) 5' to 3' (down stream) |
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What is the role of DNA helicase?
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- unzips helix; as DNA helicase moves left, compaction increases, and DNA becomes super-coiled.
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What are the role of enzymes?
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They are catalysts (lower energy of activation)
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A newly created strand of DNA contains [?]
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One strand from the original DNA, and one newly synthesized strand (semi conservative)
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Where does DNA replication begin?
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Towards the middle at a point called the point of replication
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What is the role of DNA polymerase?
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Builds and proofreads
The enzyme which builds the new DNA strand. It cannot initiate a strand from two nucleotides, but it can add to an existing stand. Needs to wait for a replication fork to open It also proofreads the strand |
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What are Okazaki fragments?
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Series of disconnected strands in the lagging DNA strand.
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What is the role of DNA ligase?
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(Latin, ligare: to fasten or bind)
Moves alond lagging strand and ties the Okazaki strands together. Formed on leading strand. |
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The process of replication is said to be [?]
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semiDiscontinuous
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What are telomeres?
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Repeated 6 nucleotide units that protect the erosion od chromosomes through repeated replication
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What is telomerase?
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The enzyme catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres
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What is a gene
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A series of DNA nucleotides that generally codes for the production of a single polypeptide or mRNA, rRNA or tRNA
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The entire DNA sequence is called [?]
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The genome
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Chromatin
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The DNA in combination with the proteins that give it structure that give the DNA its shape.
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Double helix is wrapped around proteins called [?]
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histones
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Chromosomes
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Long chains of DNA wrapped around each other
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Homologous chomosome
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Different version of the same gene (ie one from mom and one from dad)
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Chromatid
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Each individual copy of a chromosome. Sister chromotids- joined together at centromere. They form ONE chromosome. When they separate, they are a chromosome, made of one chromatid. Only call it a chromatid if there are two together.
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What is the centromere?
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The point at which identical chromosomes are joined
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What is the difference between the lagging and leading strands?
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The leading strand does continuous synthesis- proceeds without any interruption
Lagging strand- discontinuous synthesis |
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What does the 5' and 3' numbers indicate?
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The carbon numbers on the sugar
The end 3' is connected to an -OH and the 5' is connected to a phosphate group |
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What are the five steps of replication?
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1) Helicase unzips the double helix
2) rNA polymerase builds a primer 3) DNA polymerase assembles the leading and lagging strands 4) the primers are removed 5) Okazaki fragments are joined |
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What are the three life stages which define the cell life cycle?
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1. interphase- most of gene expression /physiological activity of cell; longest phase except in rapidly growing embryo
2. DNA replication- synthesizing (in transition to next: chromatin condenses) 3. cell division- you can see recognizable chromosome (in transition to next: 2 new cells) |
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What is mitosis? What are the stages?
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Nuclear division without genetic change.
Stages: (Interphase) Prophase, Metaphase, anaphase and telophase (cytokinesis) Mnemonic: I Poop More After TaCos (yeah, its gross, but you wont forget it!) |
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Describe Prophase
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Chromosomes PAIR up
The chromatin condenses into chromosomes Centrioles move to the opposite sides of the sell The nuclear envelope starts to dissapear |
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Describe Metaphase
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Chromosomes line up in the MIDDLE
Greek: Meta - Between Nuclear envelope is completely gone |
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Describe Anaphase
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The chromosomes pull APART
The sister chromatics split at the centomeres and move towards opposite ends of the cell. At this moment in the cell cycle we should have a total of 92 chromosomes; 46 are moving towards one pole and 46 are moving towards the opposite pole. Movement occurs because of microtubule depolymerization. Cytokinesis begins at the end |
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Describe Telophase
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TWO cells form
Greek: teleios- complete all daughter chromosomes have reached their respective poles. Each chromosome begins to uncoil and extend itself. The microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to disappear as a nuclear membrane reforms around each of the two daughter nuclei. The nucleolus (or nucleoli) reappears. The cleavage furrow of cytokinesis continues to deepen. |
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What is Meiosis? What are the stages?
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Meiosis is a doible nuclear division which produces four haploid gametes (sex cells).
Its divided into Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Its like mitosis, but the daughter dells are haploid, genetic recombination occcurs. |
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Are all daughter cells equal in Meiosis?
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No, you get is one big cell and three smaller cells.
When a zygote is formed, it needs energy; evolution has said that it would be better to get energy from one cell; needs energy to survive for 10-12 days |
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Describe Meiosis prophase
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Chromosomes double to 92 and cross over
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Describe Meiosis prometaphase
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Nucleus dissolves and microtubules attach to centromeres
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Describe Meiosis Metaphase 1
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Chromosomes align at middle of cell
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Describe Meiosis Anaphase 1
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Separated Chromosomes are pulled apart
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Describe Meiosis Telophase 1
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Microtubules dissapear, cell division begins
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Describe Meiosis Interphase 2
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Two cells formed, each with 46 chromosomes
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Describe Meiosis Metaphase 2
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MICROTUBULES
Microtubules attach to centromeres |
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Describe Meiosis Anaphase 2
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Chromosomes pulled APART to 23
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Describe Meiosis Telophase 2
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Microtubules dissappear
Cell division appears |
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Describe Meiosis Cytokinesis
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4 cells formed, each with 23 chromosomes
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What are the organ systems and what is the mnemonic
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Skeletal, Muscular, Respiratory, Integumentary, Cardiovascular, Reproductive, Urinary, Immune (or lymphatic), Nervous, Endocrine, Digestive.
Sir, My Resolve Is Completely RUINED |
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What is a tissue? What are the types of tissues?
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A group of specialized cells sharing a common origin and function.
Epithelial, Nervous, Connective, Muscle |
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What is epithelial tissue
What is an example? |
cells that cover.
protection, secretion, absorption, excretion Type: outer layer of the skin, the inside of the mouth and stomach, and the tissue surrounding the body's organs. |
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What is connective tissue
What is an example? |
Produces support and structure to the body.
examples: inner layers of skin, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bone and fat tissue, blood |
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What is muscular tissue?
What is an example? |
Muscle cells are elongated and classified as either striated muscle cells or smooth muscle cells, capability to CONTRACT
Cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle |
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What is nervous tissue?
What is an example? |
cells that send and receive information. Nerve tissue contains two types of cells: neurons and glial cells
neurons, photoreceptors in eyes |
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What is an organ?
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A structure made of different tissues that carries out a specific
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Whats an organ system
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a group of organs that come together to carry out basic functions.
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What are the major role and organs of the Skeletal system.
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Major Role:
The main role of the skeletal system is to provide support for the body, to protect delicate internal organs and to provide attachment sites for the organs. Major Organs: Bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments. |
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What are the major role and organs of the Muscular system
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Major Role:
The main role of the muscular system is to provide movement. Muscles work in pairs to move limbs and provide the organism with mobility. Muscles also control the movement of materials through some organs, such as the stomach and intestine, and the heart and circulatory system. Major Organs: Skeletal muscles and smooth muscles throughout the body. |
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What are the major role and organs of the circulatory system
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Major Role:
The main role of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, gases (such as oxygen and CO2), hormones and wastes through the body. Major Organs: Heart, blood vessels and blood. |
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What are the major role and organs of the nervous system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the nervous system is to relay electrical signals through the body. The nervous system directs behaviour and movement and, along with the endocrine system, controls physiological processes such as digestion, circulation, etc. Major Organs: Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. |
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What are the major role and organs of the respiratory system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the respiratory system is to provide gas exchange between the blood and the environment. Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body. Major Organs: Nose, trachea and lungs. |
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What are the major role and organs of the Digestive system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the digestive system is to breakdown and absorb nutrients that are necessary for growth and maintenance. Major Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. |
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What are the major role and organs of the excretory system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the excretory system is to filter out cellular wastes, toxins and excess water or nutrients from the circulatory system. Major Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. |
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What are the major role and organs of the Endocrine system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the endocrine system is to relay chemical messages through the body. In conjunction with the nervous system, these chemical messages help control physiological processes such as nutrient absorption, growth, etc. Major Organs: Many glands exist in the body that secrete endocrine hormones. Among these are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, pancreas and adrenal glands. |
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What are the major role and organs of the reproductive system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the reproductive system is to manufacture cells that allow reproduction. In the male, sperm are created to inseminate egg cells produced in the female. Major Organs: Female : ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and mammary glands. Male : testes, seminal vesicles and penis. |
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What are the major role and organs of the Lymphatic/Immune system?
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Major Role:
The main role of the immune system is to destroy and remove invading microbes and viruses from the body. The lymphatic system also removes fat and excess fluids from the blood. Major Organs: Lymph, lymph nodes and vessels, white blood cells, T- and B- cells. |
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What are the major role and organs of the integumentary system?
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Components: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
Function: covers and protects body |
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Incompletely dominante expressive pattern
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hybrid genotype gives intermediate phenotype; contrast to (dominant vs. recessive) ; red + white =pink
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Rule of indepentet assortment
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traits assort independent of each other
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each fertilization is an [?] event
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independent
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universal donor is the [?] blood type
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O-
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universal recipient is the [?] blood type
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AB+
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What is epistasis?
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where the effects of one gene are modified by one or several other genes, which are sometimes called modifier genes.
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What is polygenetic inheritence?
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hen a single trait is controlled by 2 or more sets of alleles.
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What is a Barr body
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condensed, physiologically inactive X chromosome; female uses only one of 2 X chromosomes that she has
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Klinefelter's syndrome?
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XXY males, the way you get a calico male cat
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Explain female calico cats
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Each cell in the body randomly turns into a barr body. Fur color is sex linked, so heterozygous cats get one black and one orange. Cells randomly turn into barr bodies, expressing either black or orange. The patches are random!
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What is Pleiotropy? What are some examples?
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when one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits.
Albinism- lack of gene for melanin; will affect skin, eye and hair color Cystic fibrosis- mucus in lungs; poor nutrient absorbtion Gene for cystic fibrosis- codes for sodium channel in cell; |
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What are the dihybrid cross proportions?
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9:3:3:1
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Distinguish between pleiotropy and polygenic inheritance
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Pleiotropy - refers to one gene influencing many traits.
Polygenic Inheritance - refers to many genes (2 or more) affecting one trait. Example: Eye colour |
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Systole period is associated with
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period of contaction
transports blood to tissues and CO2 out. This creates pressure |
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Diastole is associated with
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period of relaxation
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T or F, the somatic cell number varies amongst species
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True
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Describe the experiment to determine where the motor was
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-Labeled microtubules with dye
-Marked area by using a laser to eliminate the florescence in that region -As anaphase proceeded, the changes in microtubule length were monitored Results: the segments on the kineochore side shortened conclusion: during anaphase, chromosome movement is correlated with kintochore ended shortening |
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Why do cancer cells continue to grow?
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They do not stop growing when growth factors are depleted
Cancer cells that impair tissue function are called malignant |
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Types of epithelial tissue
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FIVE TYPES
cuboidal epithelium (specialized for secretion, makes up kidney tubules and many glands), Simple columnar epithelium (specialized for secretion or absorption) lines the intestines Simple squamous epithelium (exchange of material through diffusion, thin and leaky) lines blood vessels and alveoli Stratified squamus (multilayered and regenerates quickly, found on surfaces subject to abrasion) outer skin, mouth, lining of anus and vagina Pheudo stratified columnar epithelium (single layer of cells varying in height, has cilia) lines portion of respiratory tract (cili+mucus) |
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Types of connective tissue
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SIX TYPES
Loose connective - most abundant, holds organs in place. Found in skin and throughout body Fibrous connective tissue - Dense with collagenous fibers. Found in tendons (muscle-bone) and ligaments (bone-bone) BONE Mineral matrix Blood - liquid matrix called plasma Adipose - stores fat Cartilage - strong, yet flexible support- disks that act as cushion between vertebrae |
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Types of muscle tissue
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THREE types
Skeletal muscle- attached by tendons. Has a striated appearance. Smooth muscle - Lacks striation, found in digestive tract, bladder. Involuntary activities Cardiac muscle - forms contractile wall of the heart. Striated, coordinate heart contraction |
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Types of nervous tissue
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TWO types
Neurons - receives signals Glia - help nourish and insulate |
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medels laws?
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The law of segregation - Two alleles segregate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes.
The law of independent assortment - each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation |
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codominance
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two alleles both affect phenotype in separate, indistinguishable ways
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Explain the mendel model
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1) alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters
2) for each character, the individual inherrits two copies of a gene, one from each parent 3) if two alleles at the locus differem then the dominant allele will affect phenotype 4) two alleles segregate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes |
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Incomplete dominance?How do we test for it?
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Red x white = pink
test by doing the F1 generation, should get reds and whites. |
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Epistasis -
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Greek - standing upon
One inhibits the other gene, brown mouse example |
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polygenic inheritance
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additive effect of two or more genes of a single phenotype
(skin color) |
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What is the difference between incomplete dominance and epistasis?
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Incomplete dominance is between 2 alleles, epistasis is between two genes
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Choose homologous structures are associated during ______. Sister Chromatids are associated during______
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Meiosis
Mitosis |
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Dependent assortment will have which phenotype ratio in the F1 generation?
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3:1
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inDependent assortment will have which phenotype ratio in the F1 generation?
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9:3:3:1
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