Biology Protists

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binomial

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two part latinized name

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genus

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first part of the binomial in which the species belongs

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specific epithet

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second part of the binomial, refers to one species within the genus

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Domain Kingdom Phylum Class

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Order Family Genus Species

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clade

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each evolutionary branch in a cladogram

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homology

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likeness attributed to common ancestor

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convergent evolution

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species from different evolutionary branches come to resemble one another if they have similar ecological roles and natural selection has shaped analahous adaptations

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analogy

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similarity due to convergence

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shared derived character

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an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade, such as hair which is a homology found only in the vertebrates called mammals in comparing mammals to other vertebrates

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shared primitive character

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a homology common to a taxon more inclusive that the one were trying to define,for example the backbone is a homology that predates the branching of the mammalian clade from the vertebrate tree, because fish and reptiles also have backbones so its not someting that helps distinguish mammals from other vertebrates

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parsimony

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a theory about nature should be the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts, in other words, "keep it simple"

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molecular clocks

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new timing methods are based on the observation that at least some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates

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phylogenetic fuse hypothesis

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perhaps the modern mammalian orders originated about 100 million years ago but did not proliferate extensively enough to be noticeable in the fossil record until after the extinction of the dinosaurs almost 40 million years later

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biogenesis

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life from life, all like today arises only by reproduction of preexisting life

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Four State Hypothesis for the Origin of Life

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1. the abiotic (nonliving) synthesis of small organic molecules, such as amino acids and nucleotides
2. the joining of these small molecules into polymers, including proteins and nucleic acids
3. the origin of selp-replicating molecules tat eventually made inheritance possible
4the packaging of all these molecules into "protobionts" droplets with membranes that maintain an internal chemistry different from the surroundings

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Stanley Miller And Harold Urey

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conditions comparable to those that scientists had postulated for the early Earth, their apparatus produced a varitey of amino acids and other organic compounds found in living organisms today; made up of H2O, H2, CH4 and NH3

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ribozymes

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Cech and other researchers found that modern cells use RNA catalysts to remove introns from RNA, also help synthesize new RNA

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protobionts

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aggregates of abiotically produced molecules

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peptidolycan

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most bacterial walls contain this unique material, which consists of polymers of modified sugars cross linked by short polypeptides that vary from species to species ( the walls of archaea lack this)

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gram stain

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one of the most valuable tools for identifying specific bacteria, which can be used to separate many species into two groups based on differences on their cell walls

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gram positive bacteria

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have simpler walls, with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan

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gram negative bacteria

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the cell walls have less peptidoglycan and more complex walls. An outer membrane on the gram-negative cell wall contains lipopolysaccharides, carbohydrates bonded to lipids

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capsule

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prokaryotes secrete this sticky substance that form still another protective layer outside the cell wall

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taxis

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movement toward or away from a stimulus, ex chemotaxis responmd to chemical stimuli perhaps moving toward food or oxygen

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transformation

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a prokaryotic cell takes up genes fromt he surrounding enviroment allowing for sonsiderable genetic transfer between prokaryotes, even across species lines

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conjugation

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the direct transfer of genes from one prokaryote to another

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transduction

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viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes

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plasmids

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in addition to its one major chromosome, the prokaryotic cell may also have much smaller rings of DNA called this

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endospores

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some bacteria from resistant cells

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antibiotics

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chemicals that inhibit the growth of other microorganis,\ms

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photoautotrophs

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photosynthetic organisms tjat harness light energy t drive synthesis of organic compounds from CO2

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chemoautotrophs

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need only CO2 as a carbonm source, but instead of using light for energy, these prokaryotes obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances, chemical energy is extracted from H2S, NH3, Fe2+

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photoheterotrophs

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can use light to generate ATP but must obtain their carbon in organic form

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chemoheterotrophs

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must consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon, protists, fungi, animals, some parasitic plants, found widely among prokaryotes

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saprobes

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decomposers that absorb ther nutrients from dead organic matter

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parasites

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absorb nutients from body fluids of living matter

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nitrogen fixation

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vonverts N2 to NH4

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obligate aerobes

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use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it

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facultative anaerobes

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can use O2 or fermentation

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obligate anaerobes

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poisoned by O2

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anaerobic respiration

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inorganic molecules othger than O2 accept electrons at the downhill end of the electron transport chians

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signature seqeunces in SSU-RRNA

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have enabled systematists to identify major clades in prokaryotic diversity

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archae in extreme envrionments

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halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens

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most known prokayrotes are bacteria

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tje two largest clades are the proteobacteria and the gram-postive bacteria

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prokaryotes are indispensible links in the recycling of chemical elements in ecosystems

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nitrogen fixation is just one example of this ecosystem service

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endotoxins

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components of the outer membrane of certain gram-negative bacteri ex salmonella

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exotoxins

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proteins secreted by prokaryotes

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bioremediation

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using prokaryotes decomposers to treat our sewage

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opportunistic

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some pathogens are this meaning they are normal residents of a host but can cause illness when the host defenses are weakneded by such factors as poor nutrition

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mixotrophs

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combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

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protozoa

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singular protozoan,

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syngamy

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the union of two gametes

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cysts

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formed that can survive harsh conditions

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plankton

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the communities of organisms mostly microscopic that drift passively or swim weakly near the water surface

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phytoplankton

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bases of most marine and freshwater food webs

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serial symbiosis

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proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger cells

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diplomonad

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have multiple flagella, two separate nuclei, a relatively simple cytoskeleton, no plastids, and no mitochondria

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parabasalids

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another group lacking mitochondria, include protists called trichomonads

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euglenoids

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are characterized by an anterior pocket, or chamber, from which one or two flagella emerge

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kinetoplastids

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have a single large mitochondrion associated with a unique organelle that houses extranuclear DNA

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alveola

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draws together a group of flagellates parasites and distinctive group eukaryotes that move by means of cilia

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apicomplexans

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parasites of animals

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sporozites

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the parasites which disseminate as tiny infectious cells

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ciliates

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live as solitary cells in fresh water

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diatoms

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have unique glasslike walls consisting of hydrated silica embedded in an organic matrix

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amoebas

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unicellular and use pseudopodia to move and to feed

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plasmodium

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feeding stage of the lifecycle is an amoeboid mass

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absortion

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a process in which fungis acquire their nutrients

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hyphae

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composed of tubular walls surrounding plasma membranes and cytoplasm

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septaes

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cross-walls that divide the fungi into cells

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haustoria

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nutrient absorbing hyphal tips that penetrate the tissues of host

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heterokaryon

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different nuclei

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plasmogamy

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the fusion of two parents' cytoplasm when teir mycelia come together

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karyogamy

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the fusion of the haploid nuclei contrbuted by the two parents