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202 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Macroevolution
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Encompasses the major biological changes evident in the fossil record. This also includes the formation of new species.
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Speciation
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The focal point of macroevolution, it may occur based on two contrasting patterns.
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Species
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A group of populations whose members possess similar anatomical characteristics and have the ability to interbreed.
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Prezygotic barriers and postzygotic barriers
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What are two types of reproductive barriers between species?
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Prezygotic barriers
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This prevents mating or fertilization between species.
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1) Temporal isolation
2) Habitat isolation 3) Behavioral isolation 4) Mechanical isolation 5) Gametic isolation |
What are the five types of prezygotic barriers?
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Temporal isolation
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Mating or fertilization occurs at different seasons or times of day.
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Habitat isolation
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Populations live in different habitats and do not meet.
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Behavioral isolation
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Little or no sexual attraction exists between populations.
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Mechanical isolation
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Structural differences prevent fertilization.
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Gametic isolation
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Female and male gametes fail to unite in fertilization.
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1) Reduced hybrid viability
2) Reduced hybrid fertility 3) Hybrid breakdown |
What are the three types of postzygotic barriers?
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Postzygotic barriers
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These prevent development of fertile adults.
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Reduced hybrid viability
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Hybrid zygotes fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity.
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Reduced hybrid fertility
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Hybrids fail to produce functional gametes.
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Hybrid breakdown
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Hybrids are feeble or sterile.
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1) Allopatric speciation
2) Sympatric speciation |
What are the two mechanisms of speciation?
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Allopatric speciation
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Geologic processes can fragment a population into two or more isolated populations.
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Sympatric speciation
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Occurs if a genetic change produces a reproductive barrier between mutants and parent population.
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Migration or gene flow
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The gain or loss of alleles from a population by the movement of individuals or gametes into or out of the populations.
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Gene pool
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All the genes in a population at any one time.
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Founder effect
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The genetic drift resulting from the establishment of a small, new population whose gene pool differs from that of the parent population.
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Bottleneck effect
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Genetic drift resulting from a drastic reduction in population size.
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Genetic drift
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A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance.
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Comparative anatomy
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The comparison of body structures in different species.
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Molecular biology
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The study of the molecular basis of heredity.
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Tennis court
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Your intestine has as much surface area as a ________________.
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Bacteria
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Ulcers are caused by _________, not stress.
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A digestive tube, alimentary canal, and accessory organs that secrete digestive juices.
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What does the human digestive system consist of?
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Alimentary canal
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A digestive tube running between a mouth and an anus; also called a digestive track.
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Mouth or oral cavity
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Functions in ingestion and the preliminary steps of digestion.
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A reflex tips the epiglottis to close the windpipe entrance.
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What happens during swallowing?
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Esophagus
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The channel through which food passes in a digestive tube, connecting the pharynx to the stomach.
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Stomach
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A pouch-like organ in a digestive tube that grinds and churns food and may store it temporarily.
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Small intestine
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The longest section of the alimentary canal. It is the principal site of the enzymatic hydrolysis of food molecules and absorption of nutrients.
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Duodenum
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The first portion of the vertebrate small intestine after the stomach, where chyme from the stomach is mixed with bile and digestive enzymes.
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Gastic ulcers
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These are erosions of the stomach lining.
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Helicobacter pylori
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Gastric ulcers are often caused by a bacterium named ____________________.
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Chyme
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A mixture of recently swallowed food and gastric juices.
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Bile
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A solution of salts secreted by the liver that emulsifies fats and aids in their digestion.
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Colon
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Most of the length of the large intestine, the tubular portion of the vertebrate alimentary canal between the small intestine and the rectum.
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Colon
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Functions mainly in water absorption and the formation of feces.
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Pancreas
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Secrets juice that neutralizes stomach acids in the duodenum.
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Liver
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The largest organ in the vertebrate body.
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Liver
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Secrets bile which helps digest fats.
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Large intestine
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The tubular portion of the vertebrate alimentary canal between the small intestine and the anus.
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Jejunum and ileum
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Are parts of the small intestine specialized for absorption.
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Intestinal wall
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Contains villi and microvilli, which provide a large surface area for absorption.
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Metabolic rate
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Energy expended by the body per unit time.
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Basal metabolic rate
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Caloric expenditure at rest (no activity = breathing, heart, other maintenance activity).
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One kilocalorie
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The amount of heat necessary to raise one kilogram of water one degree celsius.
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Essential nutrients
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Are substances needed by the body that it cannot make itself.
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20; 8
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There are _________ essential amino acids that make up a protein but we consider just ___________ to be essential.
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We need them in our diet and we don't manufacture them.
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Why are the 8 essential amino acids considered essential?
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1) Methionine
2) Valine 3) Threonine 4) Phenylalanine 5) Leucine 6) Isoleucine 7) Tryptophan 8) Lysine. |
What are the 8 essential amino acids?
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6
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Corn will cover ________ of the essential amino acids.
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7
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Beans and other legumes will cover _______ of the essential amino acids.
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Vitamins
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Are organic molecules required in the diet for good health; they function mostly as assistants to enzymes.
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1) Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
2) Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) 3) Niacin 4) Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 5) Pantothenic acid 6) Folic acid (folate) 7) Vitamin B12 8) Biotin 9) Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) |
What 9 vitamins are water-soluble vitamins?
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1) Vitamin A
2) Vitamin D 3) Vitamin E (tocopherol) 4) Vitamin K |
What 4 vitamins are fat-soluble vitamins?
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You will pee them out.
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What will happen if you take too many water-soluble vitamins?
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Essential fatty acids
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Are the fatty acids we cannot make from simpler molecules.
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List of ingredients; key nutrition facts
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On food labels, the FDA requires the __________________ and ________________.
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Malnutrition
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A dietary deficiency of one or more of the essential nutrients.
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Protein deficiency
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This is an example of malnutrition.
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Undernutrition
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Is caused by an inadequate intake of nutrients.
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Obesity
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Is an inappropriately high ratio of weight to height.
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Muscle fibers
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What does muscle tissue consist of?
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1) Skeletal
2) Cardiac 3) Smooth |
What are the three types of muscle fibers?
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Skeletal muscle
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It is attached to bones by tendons.
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Skeletal muscle
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It is responsible for voluntary movements.
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Cardiac muscle
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It is found only in heart tissue.
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Cardiac muscle
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Its contraction accounts for the heartbeat.
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Cardiac muscle
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These muscle cells are branched and joined to one another.
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Smooth muscle
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It is named for its lack of obvious striations.
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Smooth muscle
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It is found in the walls of various organs.
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Smooth muscle
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It is involuntary.
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Smooth muscle
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It orients around tubes.
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Homeostasis
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It is the body's tendency to maintain relatively constant conditions in the internal environment even when the external environment changes.
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Negative feedback
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A control mechanism in which a chemical reaction, metabolic pathway, or hormone-secreting gland is inhibited by the products of the reaction, pathway, or gland.
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Negative feedback
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Most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on this common principle.
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1) Oxytocin/uterine contractions during childbirth
2) Na + channels during Action Potential 3) Estrogen/Progesterone + feedback during ovulation 4) Orgasm 5) Drug addiction |
What are the five types of positive feedback?
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Thermoregulation
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The maintenance of internal body temperature.
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Endotherms
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These derive the majority of their body heat from their metabolism.
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Ectotherms
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These obtain body heat primarily by absorbing it from their surroundings (turtles are an example).
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Fever
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It is an abnormally high internal temperature.
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Fever
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It is a body-wide response that usually indicates and ongoing fight against infection.
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Osmoregulation
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Precise balance of water and solutes.
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Nephrons
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These are the functional units of the kidneys.
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1 million
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The human kidney equals about how many nephrons?
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1) Pulmonary circuit
2) Systemic circuit |
What are the two circuits of the cardiovascular system?
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Open circulatory system
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A circulatory system in which the circulating fluid is pumped through open-ended vessels and out among the body cells.
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Open
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In an animal with an ___________ circulatory system, the circulating fluid and interstitial fluid are the same.
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Closed circulatory system
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A circulatory system in which blood is confined to vessels and is kept separate from the interstitial fluid.
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Cardiac cycle
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The alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart.
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Pulmonary circuit
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This conveys (carries) blood between the heart and the lungs.
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Systemic circuit
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This conveys (carries) blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
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Arteries
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What kind of blood vessels carry blood away from the heart?
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Veins
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What kind of vessels return blood to the heart?
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Ventricles
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Which chambers pump blood out of the heart?
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Atria
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Which chambers receive blood returning to the heart?
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Diastole
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The relaxation phase of the heart cycle.
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Systole
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The contraction phase of the heart cycle.
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Pacemaker
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Sets the tempo of the heart, it is composed of specialized muscle tissue in the wall of the right atrium.
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Capillary
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A microscopic blood vessel that conveys blood between an artery and a vein or between an arteriole and a venule.
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Capillary
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Enables the exchange of nutrients and dissolved gases between the blood and interstitial fluid.
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120 over 80
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What is normal blood pressure?
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Systole
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The first number in checking your blood pressure is blood pressure during _____________.
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Diastole
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The second number in checking your blood pressure is the blood pressure that remains in the arteries during ___________.
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Red blood cell
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A blood cell containing hemoglobin.
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Hemoglobin
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This transports O2.
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White blood cell
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A blood cell that functions in defending the body against infections.
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White blood cell
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This is also called a leukocyte.
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Red blood cell
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This is also called an erythrocyte.
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Leukemia
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Cancer of the white blood cells, characterized by excessive production of these cells, resulting in an abnormally high number in the blood.
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Cardiovascular disease
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What accounts for 40% of all deaths in the U.S.?
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"Homo Sapien"
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This means wise man.
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1) Non-branching evolution
2) Branching evolution |
What are the two patterns of speciation?
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Non-branching evolution
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Population transforms but does not become a new species.
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Branching evolution
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One or more new species branch from a parent species that may continue to exist.
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Sympatric speciation
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Many domesticated plants are made through this mechanism.
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Punctuated equilibrium
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It is a contrasting model of evolution, states that species most often diverge in spurts of relatively sudden change.
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Punctuated equilibrium
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This accounts for the rarity of transitional fossils.
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Exaptation
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Involves a structure that evolves in one context, gradually becoming adapted for other functions.
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Exaptation
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A mechanism for novel features to arise gradually through a series of intermediate stages.
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Plate tectonics
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The continents are not locked in place. They drift about Earth's surface on plates of crust floating on a flexible layer called the mantle.
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Charles Darwin
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He wrote "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" and it was published in 1859.
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Charles Darwin
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He argued that contemporary species arose from ancestors through a process of "descent with modification" with natural selection as the mechanism.
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Charles Darwin
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He challenged the idea that the Earth was relatively young and populated by unrelated species.
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Buffon
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He suggested that the earth might be older than 6,000 years.
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Buffon
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He observed similarities between fossils and living species.
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Lamarck
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He suggested that organisms evolved by the process of adaption and inheritance of acquired characteristics.
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1) Organisms inhabiting Earth today descended from ancestral species.
2) Natural selection was the mechanism for descent with modification. |
What were the two points that Darwin made in his book?
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The fossil record
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What is one observable mark that biological evolution has left?
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Comparative anatomy
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This confirms that evolution is a remodeling process.
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Molecular biology
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This leaves signs in DNA and proteins.
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Molecular biology
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It can be determined by comparing genes and proteins of different organisms.
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1) There needs to be overproduction of species.
2) There needs to be individual variation for evolution. |
What were Darwin's two observations?
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Australopithecus afarensis
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Lived 4.2-3.8 million years ago.
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Australopithecus afarensis
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First discovered by Don Johansen in 1974, the specimen was called "Lucy" and originally thought to be the missing link.
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Australopithecus afarensis
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Had apelike features.
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Australopithecus afarensis
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Very primitive bipedalism.
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Australopithecus africanus
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Lived 3.5-2.5 million years ago.
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Australopithecus africanus
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3.5-4.5 feet tall.
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Australopithecus africanus
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Weighed about 55-130 pounds.
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Australopithecus africanus
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Primitive bipedalism
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Australopithecus africanus
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First discovered in 1925 in South Africa by Raymond Dirt.
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1) Brain size/cranial capacity
2) Better bipedalism 3) Hunting 4) Fire 5) Tools 6) Shelter 7) Clothing 8) Language |
What were the 8 major hominid advances?
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Homo habilis
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Had a 612 cranial capacity (cc)
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Homo habilis
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Lived 2.3-1.6 million years ago
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Homo habilis
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Was the first toolmaker.
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Homo habilis
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Had a prognathic face and brow.
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Homo Erectus
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Discovered in 1891 by Eugene Dubois in Java, called "Java Man".
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Homo Erectus
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Lived 1.9 million years ago-27,000 years ago
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Homo Erectus
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Had a 994 cc (cranial capacity)
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Homo neandertalensis
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Discovered in Neander Valley near Dusseldorf in 1856.
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Homo neandertalensis
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Had a 1,400 cc
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Homo neandertalensis
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Later remains of this show a decrease in robustness of the front teeth suggesting the use of tools.
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1) They interbred with homo sapiens
2) They were killed off 3) Competition |
What are the 3 theories as to what happened to the neanderthals while they coexisted with homo sapiens?
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Cro-Magnon Man
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Lived 35,000-17,000 years ago
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Cro-Magnon Man
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Had a 1,600 cc
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Cro-Magnon Man
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Not a different species, just old homo sapiens from a certain region in Europe.
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Homo Sapiens
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Archaic lived 100,000-35,000 years ago
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Homo Sapiens
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Modern lived 35,000 years ago to the present
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Homo Sapiens
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Modern are anatomically modern, called homo sapiens sapiens
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Homo Sapiens
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A 1,300 cc
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1) Mechanical
2) Chemical 3) Facilitation of absorption of nutrients |
What are the 3 types of digestion?
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Mechanical digestion
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This type of digestion involves physical processes.
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Esophagus
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This moves food down by peristalsis.
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Duodenum
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This receives digestive agents from several organs.
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Muscle fibers
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Bundles of long, thin cylindrical cells
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Osmoregulation
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Your kidneys help control this.
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Red blood cells
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Most numerous type of blood cell.
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Red blood cells
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Carb-containing proteins in CM determine blood type
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Anemia
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Abnormally low amount of hemoglobin/low amount of red blood cells.
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White blood cells
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There are about 700x fewer than red blood cells.
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Heart attack
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This is the leading cause of death in the U.S.
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1) Breathing
2) Transport by circulatory system 3) Servicing of cells within the body tissue |
What are the 3 phases of the respiratory system?
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It's 100x tighter and will kill you.
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What happens if CO binds to hemoglobin?
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99% of O2 transported is bound to hemoglobin.
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What happens in gas transport?
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1) Nonspecific external barriers
2) Nonspecific internal defenses 3) Specific immune defenses |
What are the 3 lines of defense that protect us from invaders?
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Nonspecific external barrier
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Skin is an example of what?
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First line of defense
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Physical barriers and chemical agents that prevent foreign invaders from getting inside.
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Inflammatory response
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A coordinated set of nonspecific defenses in response to damaged cells.
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Histamine and prostaglandins
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Damaged cells release __________ and ________________.
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Lymphatic system
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The organ system through which lymph circulates; includes lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and several other organs.
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Lymphatic system
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Helps remove toxins and pathogens from the blood and interstitial fluid and returns fluid and solutes from the interstitial fluid to the circulatory system.
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Antigen
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Are foreign substances that elicit an immune response.
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Antibodies
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Are proteins found in blood that bind antigen and help counter its effects.
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Immunity
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Is resistance to specific invaders.
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Immunity
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Is usually acquired by natural infection.
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Vaccinations
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Trigger active immunity, stimulating the body to defend itself.
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Passive immunity
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Is acquired by receiving premade antibodies.
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Lymphocytes
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Are white blood cells found most often in the lymphatic system.
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Lymphocytes
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Produce the immune response.
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1) B cells
2) T cells |
What are the two types of lymphocytes?
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B cells
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Develop in the bone marrow.
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T cells
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Become specialized in the thymus.
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1) Humoral immune response
2) Cell-mediated immune response |
What are two types of immune responses?
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Humoral immune response
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B cells secrete antibodies as a form of defense.
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Cell-mediated immune response
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T cells circulate in the blood and lymph, marking and attacking infected body cells.
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Antibodies from B-cells
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Proteins that serve as a molecular weapons of defense.
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