Biology Lab Practical #2

Front 1

Protists:
How many kingdoms?
What kind of reproduction?

Back 1

divided into 5 kingdoms; represent a large and diverse assemblage of mostly unicellular organisms; all exhibit asexual reproduction

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Kingdom Euglenozoa:
Which Phyla?
What kind of locomotion?

Back 2

Domain Eukaryota; includes Phyla Euglenophyta and Kinoplastida; have whip-like flagella for locomotion

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Phylum Euglenophyta

Back 3

(euglenoids) freshwater unicellular forms such as Euglena

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eyespot

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photosensitive spot which allows a Euglena to move to areas of high light intensity (good for photosynthesis)

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Phylum Kinoplastida:
Where do they get their name?
Some examples?

Back 5

(kinoplastids) symbiotic protists which get their name from the kinoplast, an organelle containing extranuclear DNA (i.e. trichonympha, trypanosoma)

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erythrocytes

Back 6

red blood cells

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Kingdom Alveolata:
Which Phyla?
Why the name?

Back 7

includes Phyla Ciliophora, Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa; all have alveoli, which are small membrane-bound spaces under the cell membrane

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Phylum Ciliophora

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(ciliates) move by cilia, which are shorter and more numerous than flagella

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trichocysts

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found in paramecia; secrete thin threads of protein that may stabilize the organism during feeding

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macronucleus

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involved in control of metabolic processes; found in Paramecia

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micronucleus

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functions in sexual reproduction;found in Paramecia

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conjugation

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a form of asexual reproduction where the micronucleus divides and 2 organism micronuclei fuse (Ciliophora)

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Phylum Dinoflagellata

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(dinoflagellates) small, single-celled marine protists consisting of fused plates of cellulose (i.e. red tide)

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Phylum Apicomplexa

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(apicomplexans) entirely parasitic, including malaria;

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Kingdom Stramenopila:
Which Phyla?
What do they all have in common?

Back 15

includes Phyla Oomycota, Bacillariophyta, Phaeophyta; all are aquatic and photosynthetic; 2 types of flagella - short and hairy, smooth and whip-like

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Phylum Bacillariophyta:
What pigments do they possess?
What is the storage product?
What are their shells made of?
Important fact?

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(diatoms) huge diversity of organisms; possess chlorophylls a and c, fucoxanthin; storage product is leucosin; their shells are made of silica; produce 80% of oxygen in the atmosphere

Front 17

Phylum Oomycota:
Example?
Reproductive structures?

Back 17

(water molds) major decomposers of aquatic vegetation (i.e. the potato blight); antheridia are male structures which produce sperm and oogonia produce eggs

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Phylum Phaeophyta:
Which pigments do they possess?
What is their storage product?
What commercial product comes from this?

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(brown algae) multicellular, large, complex organisms which possess chlorophylls a and c, fucoxanthin; storage product is laminarin; algin is a product of this

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holdfast

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root-like structure of algae

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stipe

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stem-like structure of algae

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blade

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leaf-like structure of algae

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Kingdom Amoebozoa

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includes Phyla Gymnamoeba, Myxomycota, and Dictyostelida

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Phylum Gymnamoeba:
How do they move/eat?

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(amoebas) naked or shelled amoebas which move by pseudopodia and eat by phagocytosis

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Phylum Myxomycota:
Describe the life cycle.

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(plasmodial slime molds) LIFE CYCLE: form multinucleate plasmodium to feed; stalked sporangia form and produce spores, which fuse to form diploid zygote (sexual)

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Phylum Dictyostelida:
Describe life cycle

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(cellular slime molds) LIFE CYCLE: free-roaming, unicellular amoebas to feed; when food is low, form a slug stage made up of many amoebas; sporangia form and spores become new unicellular amoebas (asexual)

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cytoplasmic streaming

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cytoplasm flowing through cell; ebbing and flowing allows nutrients and metabolic products to be transported throughout cellular mass

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Kingdom Rhodophyta:
Which pigments are found in this?
What is its storage product?
What product comes from this?

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(Red Algae) can be found at great depths; pigments include phycoerythrin, chlorophylls a and d, cartenoids; Floridean starch is storage product; Agar comes from this

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Fetal pig

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has undergone 100 days of development; internal structure is typical of most mammals

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dorsal side

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"back"

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ventral side

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"stomach"

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umbilical cord:
vein?
artery?

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attached the fetus to the mother's placenta; umbilical vein carried nutrients and oxygen to the fetus, while the umbilical arteries carried waste products and CO2 away from the fetus

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Female fetal pig

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genital papilla protrudes from a urogenital opening ventral to the anus

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Male fetal pig

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urogenital opening is just behind the umbilical cord; swelling behind the hindlimbs is the scrotum

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papillae

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nipples/taste buds

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diaphragm

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thin sheet of muscle separating the anterior thoracic cavity from the more posterior abdominal cavity

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Blood flow in the heart (all mammals)

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blood enters right atrium of heart from vena cavae -> pumped into right ventricle -> pumped out into pulmonary trunk to the lungs -> enters left atrium -> pumped into left ventricle -> pumped into aortic arch -> dorsal aorta

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Inferior vena cava

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drains blood from lower part of the body

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Superior vena cava

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returns blood from arms and head

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braciocephalic artery

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carries blood to the head and right arm and shoulder

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left subclavian artery

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carries blood to the left arm and shoulder

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iliac arteries

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each carry blood to one leg

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Adaptations of the fetal pig heart

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foramen ovale is an opening between the right and left atria; ductus arteriosus diverts blood from the pulmonary trunk to the aortic arch

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Respiratory System

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Air passes through the glottis -> down the trachea to two bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli where gases are exchanged

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liver

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largest organ of the body which secretes bile (stored in the gall bladder)

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pyloric sphincter

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muscle which regulates passage of material out of the stomach into the small intestine

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Small Intestine

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made up of the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum

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Caecum

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blind pouch of the small intestine located near its junction with the large intestine

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meninges

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set of three membranes covering the brain

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Fungi

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important decomposers composed of hyphae which form mycelia

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Phylum Zygomycota:
Sexual reproduction?
Asexual reproduction?

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(bread molds) coenocytic hyphae with haploid nuclei; asexual reproduction by sporangia; sexual reproduction occurs when + and - hyphae fuse to form a zygospore

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stolen

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hyphal filament growing along the substrate in a zygomycete

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rhizoids

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anchor a zygomycete

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Phylum Ascomycota:
How do they reproduce?

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(sac fungi) to reproduce, gametangia are produced with haploid nuclei -> a cytoplasmic bridge joins the two so that nuclei can associate forming dikarya -> fruiting body is ascocarp; ascus forms 8 ascospores (i.e. penicillin)

Front 54

Phylum Basidiomycota:
What are the fruiting bodies?
How many spores are produced?

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(club fungi) diverse fungi phylum with basidiocarps as fruiting bodies; produce 4 basidiospores

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Mycorrhizae

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fungi-plant associations at the roots in which the fungus aids in absorption of water and dissolved minerals while the plant provides food

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Lichens

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a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism (usually a ascomycete or basidiomycete and a cyanobacteria or algae)

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Kingdom Chlorophyta:
Which Phyla?
What is special about this kingdom?

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includes Phyla Chlorophyta and Charophyta; shares many characteristics with plants such as primary pigments, starch as storage product, cell wall of cellulose, etc.

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Phylum Chlorophyta

Back 58

(green algae) very diverse; daughter colonies can often be seen within the parent colony

Front 59

Phylum Charophyta:
Example?
Reproduction?

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(charophyceans or stoneworts) Phylum closest to plants - they share the formation of a phragmoplast during cell wall formation; i.e. Chara; reproduce by conjugation tube connecting antheridia and archegonia

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Kingdom Plantae

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made up of several phyla; land plants characterized by multicellular dependent embryos

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Alternation of Generations

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succession between a haploid and diploid condition; haploid (N) plants, or gametophytes, produce gametes in specialized organs - archegonia produce eggs and antheridia, sperm; fusion of sperm and egg, syngamy, produces a diploid zygote which becomes a sporophyte, and then produces spores

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heterosporous

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when spores produced turn into either male or female gametophytes

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homosporous

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spores develop into gametophytes capable of producing male and female sex organs

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Bryophytes:
Phyla?
Reprduction?

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Non-vascular land plants; phyla Heptatopyta and Bryophyta; closely tied to water; lack effective system for transport; small and close to the ground; depend on water for reproduction

Front 65

Phylum Hepatophyta:
Which stage is dominant?
Dioecious or monoecious?
Asexual Reproduction?

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(liverworts) gametophyte is dominant; dioecious; reproduce asexually with gemmae cup

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dioecious

Back 66

separate male and female plants

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Phylum Bryophyta

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(mosses) gametophyte is green, photosynthetic, and leafy; sporophyte grows from it, with capsule at apex which releases spores

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Tracheophytes:
Which Phyla?

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Vascular plants which have xylem and phloem; include Phyls Lycophyta and Pterophyta

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Xylem

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conducts water and dissolved minerals from root; made up of tracheids and vessels, which are dead and consist only of empty cell walls

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Tracheids

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primary water-conducting elements in seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms; small and elongated

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Wood Vessels

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make up the xylem of angiosperms; arranged end to end to form a series of tubules with perforated ends

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Phloem

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transports sucrose from leaves to the rest of the plant; made up of sieve tube cells and companion cells, which are living

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Phylum Lycophyta:
Where are sporangia?

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(club mosses and quillworts) most primitive vascular plants, with true roots and scale-like leaves; sporangia are positioned laterally on stem, and form strobili

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microphyll

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small, scale-like leaf; single, unbranching trace of vascular tissue arising from the stem and invading a leaf

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megaphyll

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leaves with extensively branching vascular tissues which are found in ferns and seed plants

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Phylum Pterophyta:
What are included, and describe each.

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(fern and fern allies)
whisk ferns - lack roots; have underground rhizome that absorbs
horsetails - stems are ribbed with nodes and internodes; made up of vegetative (infertile) and reproductive shoots
Ferns have large megaphyll leaves called fronds, which arise from rhizomes; when sporangia called sori form on the underside of leaves, spores can be produced

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Spermatophytes:
Which Phyla?
What is the dominant stage?

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Seed Plants; includes Phyla Coniferophyta, Gingkophyta, and Cycadophyta; dominant stage is diploid sporophyte

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seed

Back 78

plant embryo protected by one or more integument

Front 79

Phylum Gingkophyta:
How many species?
What is a big difference between males and females?

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(gingko) only one species; females are foul; males smell nice

Front 80

Phylum Cycadophyta:
Dioecious or monoecious?
Where do species form from?

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(cycads) dioecious; most species form terminal strobili which produce pollen (if male); seeds may take years to mature

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Phylum Coniferophyta:
Dioecious or monoecious?

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(conifers) monoecious; make up boreal forests

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staminate cones

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male cones; higher up on trees; may release billions of pollen

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ovulate cones

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female cones; small and fleshy;

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Phylum Anthophyta

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(flowering plants) seeds are protected by 2 integuments around the embryo and tissues of the ovary; very successful group aided by flowers

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Pistil/carpel

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Female part of the flower; composed of stigma, style, and ovary;

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Stamen

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Male part of flower; cpmposed of anthers and filaments

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Gametophyte Generation of Anthophyta

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The embryo sac undergoes meiotic cell division, resulting in 4 haploid megaspores; 3 of these fuse to form a triploid nucleus; This undergoes 2 mitosis divisions, forming 4 triploid nuclei; 3 form the antipodal nuclei, one the polar nucleus

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double fertilization

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one sperm fuses with egg nucleus to form zygote, the other with the 2 polar nuclei to form a pentaploid; zygote forms embryo, pentaploid the endosperm

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clade Magnoliid

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large, leathery leaves and large, beetle-pollinated flowers (i.e. Magnolia)

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clade Monocots:
Examples?
What do they have?

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(grasses, palms, lilies, orchids) embryo ony has one cotyledon; trimerous flowers; parallel venation in leaves; scattered vascular bundles; adventitious roots; monosulcate pollen

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clade Eudicots:
Example?
What do they have?

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(beans) embryo has 2 cotyledons; tertramerous or pentamerous flowers; reticulate venation in leaves; vascular tissue arranged in rings; primary roots and lateral roots; tricolpate pollen

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Parenchyma cells

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ground cells of plants, which make up the bulk of the body;

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cortex

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ground tissue between the vascular elements and the epidermis

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schlerenchyma

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thick-celled walls specialized for support

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collenchyma

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modified form of parenchyma specialized for support in young plant organs

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primary growth

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growth in length; tips of shoots or roots; achieved through apical meristems

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secondary growth

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increase in diameter; result of production of secondary xylem and phloem by the vascular cambium

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root cap

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protects the apical meristem as it grows through the soil

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nodes

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sites at which buds arise

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internode

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length of the shoot between two adjacent

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vascular cambium

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meristematic tissue that produces new xylem and phloem; outermost xylem is youngest, innermost phloem is youngest

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stomata

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openings through which gases enter and exit the leaf

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guard cells

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regulate the opening and closing of the stomata

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palisade mesophyll

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primary site of photosynthetic activity in the leaf

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cuticle

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thin covering on the upper epidermis which helps prevent water loss

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palmate leaves

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look like fingers

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pinnate leaves

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look like feathers

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starch

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storage product of plants; photosynthate

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casparian strip

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prevents water from passing into the roots from the apoplast

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root hairs

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cover the root and enhance surface area