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184 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Genes of bacteria are found in ________ ________.
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bacterial chromosomes
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small circular pieces of DNA that exist independently of the bacterial chromosome
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plasmids
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______ can be replicated independently of the bacterial chromosome.
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Plasmids
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genetic material is transferred from one bacterial cell to another
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genetic transfer
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If bacteria picks up a plasmid that is resistant to penicillin, but there is no penicillin in the environment, bacteria will or will not replicate the plasmid?
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will not
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direct physical interaction transfers genetic material from donor to recipient cell
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Conjugation (type of genetic transfer)
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DNA released from a dead bacterium into the environment is taken up by another bacteria
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Transformation (type of genetic transfer)
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Name the three types of genetic transfer.
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Conjugation, transformation, and Transduction
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a virus transfers genetic information from one bacterium to another
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Transduction (type of genetic transfer)
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Conjugation, Transformation, or Transduction?
- requires physical connection (pilus) between the 2 bacteria - donor strains contain a fertility factor (F factor) that can be transferred to recipient strains |
Conjugation
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The F factor in conjugation allows for what to happen?
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allows new donor to develop a sex pilus
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In conjugation:
donor cell = F+, recipient cell = F- Once conjugation is complete, F- becomes what? |
F+ (a donor cell)
but note that original donor cell will keep a copy of the donated plasmid) |
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Conjugation, Transformation, or Transduction?
- does not require direct contact between bacterial cells - living bacterial cell imports a strand of DNA that another bacterium released into the environment when it died |
Transformation
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Conjugation, Transformation, or Transduction?
- viruses that infect bacteria transfer bacterial genes from one bacterium to another - mutually beneficial to both virus and bacteria (gives bacteria growth factor) |
Transduction
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virus that specifically infects bacteria
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bacterial phage
(forces bacteria to reproduce phage) |
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______ and _______ are nonliving particles w/ nucleic acid genomes that require the assistance of living cells to reproduce.
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Viruses and Viroids
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What was the first virus discovered?
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Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
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Viruses are not considered living organisms and cannot reproduce by themselves.
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True
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small infectious particle that consists of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat
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virus
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Name the 3 things that make up viruses.
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protein coat, nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA), and attachment site
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If a virus uses RNA as genetic material, then it is called a ________.
(i.e., HIV) - harder to detect, harder to treat |
retrovirus
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List the steps for a virus to invade a host (in order).
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1. Attachment
2. Entry 3. Integration (viral DNA combines w/ host DNA so every time host copies DNA, it copies viral DNA) 4. Synthesis of viral components 5. Viral assembly 6. Release |
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RNA to DNA is facilitated by:
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reverse transcriptase
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Name the 2 cycles a virus can target.
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Lytic cycle and Lysogenic cycle
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2 copies of single-stranded RNA and 2 molecules of enzyme reverse transcriptase
- packaged into capsid - surrounded by viral envelope |
HIV
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Retroviruses utilize _________ ___________ to produce viral DNA that can be integrated into the host cell genome.
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reverse transcriptase
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composed solely of a single-stranded circular RNA molecule a few hundred nucleotides in length
- not living - infect plant cells |
Viroids
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- composed entirely of protein
- disease causing conformation PrP^Sc - normal conformation PrP^C - converts normal proteins to abnormal conformation |
Prions
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_____ go through alternation of generations.
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Plants
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Define alternation of generations.
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spend some time as diploid, some time as haploid
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Are gametophytes haploid or diploid?
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haploid
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Are sporophytes haploid or diploid?
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diploid
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Moss spends a small amount of its life cycle as a sporophyte and more time as a gametophyte.
This is an example of what? |
Alternation of Generations
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Flowering plants spend their adult lives as a sporophyte. A smaller amount of their life cycle is spent as a gametophyte.
This is an example of what? |
Alternation of Generations
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Function is to protect the unopened flower bud. They protect the part that holds the gametophyte.
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Sepals
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Function is to serve in the attraction of pollinators.
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Petals
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Their function is to produce distinctive spores by meiosis.
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Stamens and carpels
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Name the reproductive parts in female and in male plants.
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female -- ovary
male -- stamen |
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Function is to contain the embryo sac.
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ovary
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Composed of the filament and anther. Function is to hold up the anther.
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Stamen
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Function is to hold the pollen.
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anther
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sticky, helps catch pollen better
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stigma
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Put the following steps in order.
a. Pollen tubes grow through style to ovary, in which are ovules that contain the haploid female gametophytes. b. Each ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary develops into fruit. Fruit aids seed dispersal c. After pollination, pollen germinates on stigma. d. Haploid microspores produced by meiosis develop into pollen, the immature male gametophyte. e. Sperm cells fertilize the egg and a central cell in one ovule. This double fertilization produces a zygote from the egg and nutritive endosperm from the central cell. f. Seed germinates. Embryo grows into new sporophyte. |
dcaebf
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Name the functions of the 2 sperm in double fertilization.
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1. fertilizes the egg to produce the diploid zygote
2. fuses w/ 2 nuclei located on central cell, which produces triploid endosperm by mitosis |
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food sac within the developing seed (3n)
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endosperm
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Function is to enclose and help disperse seeds.
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Fruit
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______ helps reduce competition and allows colonization of new sites.
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Dispersal
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Fruits develop from the ______.
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ovary
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The _______ absorbs water, becomes metabolically active, and grows out of seed coat.
Ultimately it produces the seedling. |
embryo
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_______ occurs only if seed encounters favorable conditions (temperature, soil nutrients, and water availability).
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Germination
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- immature male gametophyte
- develop within anthers - 4 haploid microspores produced |
Pollen Grains
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Pollen grains develop within the ______.
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anthers
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Each microspore nucleus undergoes ______ to form male gametophyte.
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mitosis
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_________ cell divides to produce 2 sperm cells.
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Generative
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What forms the pollen tube?
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Tube cell
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Function is to give physical strength and resistance to microbial attack
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Pollen wall
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Anthers give rise to what two cells?
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Microsporocytes (2n) and Tapetal cells (2n)
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_______ cells are sperm nurturers in plants.
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Tapetal
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Microsporocytes undergo meiosis to produce:
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4 microspores (1n)
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Each of the 4 microspores undergoes mitosis to produce what two kinds of cells?
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1 generative cell (1n)
1 tube cell (1n) |
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A (1n) generative cell undergoes mitosis to produce:
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2 sperm cells (1n)
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What cells make up the pollen grain?
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1 tube cell (1n)
- tube cell gives tube that allows sperm to get to ovary 2 sperm cells (1n) - 2 sperm cells are used for double fertilization |
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1n or 2n?
Tapetal cells microsporocytes microspores generative cell tube cell sperm cells |
tapetal cells: 2n
microsporocytes: 2n microspores: 1n generative cell: 1n tube cell: 1n sperm cells: 1n |
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Each ovule undergoes __ rounds of mitosis to produce a single female gametophyte.
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3
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The egg cell lies between 2 ______.
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synergids
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Function is to help move nutrients to female gametophyte.
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synergids
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The central cell has how many nuclei?
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2
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The megasporocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis to produce:
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4 megaspores (1n)
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What happens to the 4 (1n) megaspores produced from the megasporocyte?
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3 will degrade and die
1 (1n) megaspore will undergo mitosis 3x to produce 8 (1n) cells |
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1 (1n) megaspore will undergo mitosis 3 times to produce:
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8 (1n) cells
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1n or 2n?
megasporocyte megaspores endosperm |
megasporocyte: 2n
megaspores: 1n endosperm: 3n |
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What is the female gametophyte?
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embryo sac
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What makes up the embryo sac (or the female gametophyte)?
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8 (1n) cells (including central cell)
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____ controls pollen germination.
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Pistil
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rejection if too genetically similar pollen
(in other words, pollen grain will not grow a pollen tube if too similar) |
self-incompatibility (SI)
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Tip growth is controlled by what?
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tube cell nucleus
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Pollen tube growth (specifically tip growth) is controlled by what?
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tube cell nucleus
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In double fertilization, one sperm fuses w/ the egg to produce (2n) zygote.
Into what does this zygote develop? |
an embryo
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Cell division rates rise or fall in cotyledons?
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rise
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Function is to break dormancy by inducing the release of sugars from stored starch.
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Gibberellins
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Embryo development is supported by surrounding ______ tissue.
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endosperm
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The cotyledons and root and shoot meristems start to develop, forming the _____ stage.
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heart
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Definition:
offspring are produced from a single parent w/o fusion of gametes from 2 parents |
asexual reproduction
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In _________ reproduction, offspring are clones of parent.
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asexual
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Asexual reproduction is more prevalent in species that live in ____ environments with little selection pressure for genetic diversity.
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stable
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Name the advantages of asexual reproduction.
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- can reproduce asexually even if isolated
- can reproduce rapidly - all individuals can produce offspring |
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Name the 4 major forms of asexual reproduction.
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1. Cell fission
2. Budding 3. Regeneration 4. Parthogenesis |
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Cell fission, Budding, Regeneration, or Parthogenesis?
present in bacteria, mitosis over and over |
Cell fission
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Cell fission, Budding, Regeneration, or Parthogenesis?
portion of parent organism pinches off to form complete new individual |
Budding
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Cell fission, Budding, Regeneration, or Parthogenesis?
complete organism formed from fragment of parent body, present in starfish |
Regeneration
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Cell fission, Budding, Regeneration, or Parthogenesis?
development of offspring from unfertilized eggs, present in insects and certain lizards |
Parthenogenesis
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Definition:
production of new individual by the joining of haploid egg and sperm to produce a diploid zygote |
Sexual reproduction
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Name the advantages of sexual reproduction.
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1. allows more rapid adaptation to environmental changes
2. may make it easier to eliminate harmful alleles 3. allows for greater genetic variation |
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Definition:
have both male and female reproductive systems |
Hermaphroditism
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Earthworms are an example of _________, though they can also undergo sexual reproduction.
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hermaphroditism
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Definition:
individual simultaneously male and female |
synchronous hermaphroditism
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Definition:
- sex reversal |
sequential hermaphroditism
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In sequential hermaphroditism, protogynous individuals are _____ first.
(i.e., bluehead uraise) |
female
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In sequential hermaphroditism, protandrous individuals are _____ first.
(i.e., clown fish) |
male
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formation of gametes
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gametogenesis
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In gametogenesis, germ cells multiply by mitosis resulting in __________ or _________.
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spermatogonia (2n) or oogonia (2n)
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spermatogonia (2n) or oogonia (2n) multiply again by mitosis to produce what?
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primary spermatocyte and primary oocytes
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1n or 2n?
spermatogonia primary spermatocytes secondary spermatocytes spermatids |
spermatogonia: 2n
primary spermatocytes: 2n secondary spermatocytes: 1n spermatids: 1n |
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1n or 2n?
oogonia primary oocytes polar bodies secondary oocytes mature ovum |
oogonia: 2n
primary oocytes: 2n polar bodies: 1n secondary oocytes: 1n mature ovum: 1n |
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List the disadvantages of sexual reproduction.
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energy inefficient, finding a mate, nurturing
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List the parts of sperm.
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midpiece, tail, head
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The tail of a sperm is made of:
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microtubules
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The head of a sperm contains ______ and ______.
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acrosome and nucleus
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The midpiece of a sperm contains lots of ______.
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mitochondria
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Definition:
- eggs and sperm released in close proximity - occurs in aquatic environments to protect gametes from drying out - species-specific behaviors to bring egg and sperm together |
external fertilization
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In ______ fertilization, very large numbers of eggs are released at once.
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external
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Definition:
- sperm deposited within female reproductive tract - protects delicate gametes from environmental hazards and predation |
internal fertilization
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Sperm contact plasma membrane of ova using ______ enzymes in acrosome to digest zona pellucida.
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proteolytic
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Once sperm fuses with egg, other sperm are ______ from entering.
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prevented
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The hypothalamus releases:
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GnRH
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GnRH triggers release of __ and ___ from the anterior pituitary.
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LH and FSH
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LH triggers the release of ________ in males in the Leydig cells.
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testosterone
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FSH triggers the production of _____ in males in the Sertoli cells.
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sperm
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__ triggers the production of sperm in the Sertoli cells in males.
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FSH
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In females, LH and FSH target the _____ instead of testis.
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ovaries
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In females, LH triggers the release of ______.
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estrogen
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In females, FSH triggers the production of _____.
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eggs
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Typically, in females one egg is released into the ________ or Fallopian tube.
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oviduct
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Eggs are moved down the oviduct by ______.
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cilia
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Fertilization usually occurs in _______.
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oviduct (or fallopian tube)
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What is the term for the fertilized egg?
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blastocyst
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________ is a ball of 32-150 cells that enters uterus.
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blastocyst
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The egg is nurtured w/in ovary by _______ cell.
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follicle
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Several oocytes begin maturation but only 1 is ______ each cycle.
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ovulated
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oocytes become depleted and ovulation stops
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menopause
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releasing of oocyte (day 14) into fallopian tube
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ovulation
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During ovulation, the concentration of LH and FSH are relatively ____.
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high
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After ovulation is the _____ phase.
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luteal
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After ovulation is the formation of the ______ _______, which produces estrogen and progesterone.
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corpus luteum
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The corpus luteum produces _______ and _______.
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estrogen and progesterone
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If the egg is fertilized, estrogen and progesterone levels will stay ____.
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high
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If the egg is fertilized, estrogen and progesterone levels will stay high, so the uterine lining stays _____ to support developing baby.
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thick
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The luteal phase occurs at the same as the ________ phase, which occurs after ovulation.
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secretory
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time during which a developing embryo grows within uterus of mother
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gestation (or pregnancy)
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What is responsible for carrying nutrients to developing baby and for carrying waste away?
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placenta
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Through gestation, there are 3 trimesters. During the first trimester:
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organs develop
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The 2nd trimester of gestation is:
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the rapid growth phase
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During the 3rd trimester of gestation:
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lungs mature to function on their own at birth and fetus positions itself above cervix
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Parturition is just another term for ______.
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birth
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_____ from posterior pituitary stimulates smooth muscle contraction in uterus.
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Oxytocin
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The pressure of the fetus head stretches smooth muscle and triggers more _____ release.
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oxytocin
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Oxytocin release before parturition (or birth) is a ______ ________ system.
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positive feedback
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Definition:
different cells in the developing organism acquire specialized forms and functions due to cell-specific genes |
Cellular differentiation
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List and put the steps of animal development in order.
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Fertilization
Cleavage Gastrulation Neurulation Organogenesis |
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Put the following in order.
A. Cleavage B. Gastrulation C. Organogenesis D. Neurulation E. Fertilization |
E, A, B, D, C
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In fast and slow block to polyspermy, fast is ______, and slow is ______.
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fast is temporary, slow is permanent
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Describe what happens in fast block to polyspermy.
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first sperm hits egg, reverses polarity and other sperm are repelled
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Describe what happens in slow block to polyspermy.
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Entry of sperm head triggers release of calcium in egg = barrier from any other sperm entering
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In slow block to polyspermy, the entry of the sperm head triggers the release of ______ in the egg, which blocks any other sperm from entering.
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calcium
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repeated cell cycles w/o cell growth
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cleavage
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alternating only between mitotic (M) phase and DNA synthesis (S) phase (no G1 or G2)
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Biphasic
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half-size daughter cell produced at each division (with each cleavage)
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blastomeres
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hollow ball of cells
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blastula
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space inside ball of cells
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blastocoel
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ball of blastomeres
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morula
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What is the difference between a morula and an egg?
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same in size but morula has higher cell number
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Definition:
hollow ball forms gastrula w/ 3 distinct cell layers |
Gastrulation
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In gastrulation, what is the inner cell layer?
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endoderm
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In gastrulation, what is the middle cell layer?
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mesoderm
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In gastrulation, what is the outer cell layer?
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ectoderm
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Endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm?
forms epithelial lining of gut, liver, pancreas, lungs, and bladder (aka digestive tract organs and others) |
endoderm
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Endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm?
forms heart, limbs, muscles, kidneys, blood, and connective tissues |
mesoderm
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Endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm?
forms epidermis and nervous system |
ectoderm
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spinal column formulation
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Neurulation
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What occurs in the thickening and elongation step of neurulation?
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ectoderm forms neural plate
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What happens in the folding stage of neurulation?
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formation of neural groove
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What happens in the convergence phase of neurulation?
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apical constriction produces tubelike structure
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What is the final step in neurulation?
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neural crest cells migrate away as fusion is completed
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Name the 5 steps of neurulation.
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1. Thickening and Elongation
2. Folding 3. Convergence 4. Fusion 5. Neural crest cells migrate away as fusion is completed |
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failure of neural tube to close
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spina bifida
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Up to 75% of spina bifida cases may be prevented if women take _____ ____.
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folic acid
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Many organs form during or just after ________.
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neurulation
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Development of organs is controlled by ________ genes.
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homeotic
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substances eliciting cellular responses based on concentration
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Morphogens
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group of embryonic cells that ultimately produce a specific body structure
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Morphogenetic field
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Removing limb field produces an embryo lacking __________ and transplanting the field to other areas produces ______ in that area
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that limb; the limb
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Name the field.
secretes morphogens responsible for inducing formation of embryonic axis |
Spemann's Organizer
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_______ affected cells in limb field and produced babies w/ malformed limbs.
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Thalidomide
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Thalidomide was prescribed for _________ ___________ in pregnant women before the side effects were known.
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morning sickness
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