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200 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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When are pheromones released?
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In response to stress, alarm, danger, sexual fertility, territoriality, food presence, or to signal identity
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What is learned behavior?
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Modification of behavior based on specific experiences
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What re the 5 types of learned behavior?
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-Habituation
-Imprinting -Spatial learning -Associative learning -Cognition |
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What is habituation?
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Loss of responsiveness to stimuli tat convey little or no new info
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What can hypersensitivity to touch or sound in some autistic people be related to?
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An inability to habituate to certain stimuli
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What is imprinting?
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Irreversible formation of a behavioral response during a "critical (sensitive) period"
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What is spatial learning?
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Establishment of a memory that reflects the environments spatial structure
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What is associative learning?
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Ability to associate one environmental feature with another
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What are the 2 types of associative learning?
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-Classical conditioning
-Operant conditioning |
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What is classical conditioning?
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Arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome
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What is operant conditioning?
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Association of own behavior with award or punishment
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What optimizes behaviors that improve survival and reproduction?
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Natural selection
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What are 2 approaches to ecology?
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-Natural history
-Hypothesis testing |
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What is hypothesis testing?
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Explanation of observed patterns and correlations and how they came to be
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What are 2 types of hypothesis testing?
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-Experiments
-Models |
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What is a model?
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A representation of an ecological process
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What 3 factors determine a species distribution and abundance?
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-Abiotic and biotic factors
-Dispersal -Historical factors |
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What are the 3 types of biotic factors?
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-Predator/Prey
-Competitors -Mutualism |
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What are the 3 types of abiotic factors?
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-Chemical
-Geological -Physical |
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What is dispersal?
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Movement away from area of origin
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What are the 2 broad categories of biomes?
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-Aquatic
-Terrestrial |
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What are the 2 types of aquatic biomes?
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-Freshwater
-Marine |
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What is population ecology?
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Study of how abiotic and biotic factors influence a species distribution density, age structure and dynamics
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What is a population?
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group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
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What is distribution?
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The geographical area within which a species or population occurs
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What are the 3 types of spatial dispersion?
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-Clumped
-Uniform -Random |
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What is age structure?
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Proportion of individuals in each age class at a point in time
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What is population density?
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number of individuals per unit area or volume
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What is a census?
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Counting all individuals in a population
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What is sampling?
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Counting only a small proportion of a population and using this count to estimate population size/density
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What is a plot sample?
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Sample individuals in a portion of total area and extrapolate to entire area
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Exponential growth
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The larger population size, the faster the population grows
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Logistic growth
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At low population size, population growth increases as population size increases. But as pop. size approaches carrying capacity, the growth rate slows down. Once pop size reaches capacity, the pop stops growing
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What is community ecology?
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The study of how species interactions affect community composition
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What is a community?
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All the populations of different species in an area
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What is interspecific?
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Between species
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What is intraspecific?
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Within species
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What is competition?
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Use of limited resource that reduces availability to others
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What is the competitive exclusion principle?
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Two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist
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What are the 3 possible outcomes when 2 species compete for the same limiting resource?
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-Local extinction
-Resource partitioning -Character displacement |
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What is resource partitioning?
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The dividing of scarce resources so that species with similar requirements can use the resources in different ways, in different places, or at different times
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What is an ecological niche?
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Total of a species use of biotic and abiotic resources
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What are the 2 types of ecological niches?
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-Fundamental niche
-Realized niche |
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What is a fundamental niche?
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The resources a species can use
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What is a realized niche?
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The resources a species does use
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What led to resource partitioning?
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Niche overlap
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What is character displacement?
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Characteristics diverge in co-occurring populations as compared to lone populations
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What is predation?
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One species kills and eats the other species
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What are 3 types of predator adaptations?
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-Fangs
-Claws -Acute senses |
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What are 3 types of adaptations prey uses to avoid predation?
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-Morphological, chemical, and behavioral
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What are 2 types of plant adaptations to reduce herbivory?
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-Mechanical
-Chemical |
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What is herbivory?
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Eating parts of a plant or algal species which reduces its survival probability or reproductive output
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What is parasitism?
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an organism living in or on another organism that decreases the host survival or reproduction
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What is mutualism?
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Two individuals of different species exist in a relationship which benefits the survival and/or reproduction of both individuals
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What is facultative mutualism?
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Both species can survive alone but do better together
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What is obligate mutualism?
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At least one species cannot survive without the other
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What is species diversity?
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The variety of different kinds of organisms in the community
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Species diversity is determined by what 2 components?
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-Species richness
-Relative abundance |
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What is species richness?
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# of different species
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What is relative abundance?
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Proportion of each species
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What is a dominant species?
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Most abundant or have highest biomass
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What is a keystone species?
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Exert strong community control by their ecological roles
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What are the 4 eons that Earths history can be divided into?
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-Hadean
-Archaean -Proterozoic -Phanerozoic |
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When did the Hadean eon start?
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~4.5 bya
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When did the Archaean eon start?
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~3.8 bya
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When did the Proterozoic eon start?
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~2.5 bya
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When did the Phanerozoic eon start?
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~0.5 bya
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What can each eon be divided into?
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Era
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What 2 things do the boundaries between eons and eras correspond to?
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-Major geological events
-Mass extinction events |
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What are 2 of the major geological events?
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-Occurrence of iron oxide
-Continent formations |
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When do mass extinction events occur?
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Phanerozoic eras only
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What are the 3 eras in the Phanerozoic eon?
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-Paleozoic
-Mesozoic -Cenozoic |
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What can each era be divided into?
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Periods
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What period is during the Proterozoic eon?
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Ediacaran period
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What 6 periods occur during the Paleozoic era?
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-Cambrian
-Ordovician -Silurian -Devonian -Carboniferous -Permian |
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What 3 periods occur during the Mesozoic era?
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-Triassic
-Jurassic -Cretaceous |
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What 3 period occur during the Cenozoic era?
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-Paleogene
-Neogene -Quaternary |
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What 3 eons are Precambrian?
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-Hadean
-Archaean -Proterozoic |
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What 3 epochs occur during the Paleogene period?
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-Paleocene
-Eocene -Oligocene |
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What 2 epochs occur during the Neogene period?
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-Miocene
-Pliocene |
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What 2 epochs occur during the Quaternary period?
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-Pleistocene
-Holocene |
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What 4 things do fossils provide direct evidence about past organisms for?
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-When they existed
-What they looked like -Where they lived -Their genetic structure |
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What are the 7 types of fossils?
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-Intact
-Compression -Impression -Cast -Permineralized -Petrification -Trace |
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What is a compression fossil?
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A plant part is compressed and all that remains is a thin film of carbonized residue
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What is an impression fossil?
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Negative image of organism. No orga
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What is a cast fossil?
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Remains decompose and the hole fills with dissolved minerals
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What is a permineralized fossil?
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Minerals gradually seep into cavities and cellular spaces and harden. Some organic material remains
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What is a petrification fossil?
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Perimineralization followed by cast of all organic material
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What is a trace fossil?
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A fossil of a trace of an animal rather than the animal itself
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What are the 2 ways that fossils are aged?
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-Relative age
-Absolute age |
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The fossil record is a nonrandom sample of the past due to what 4 things?
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-Habitat bias
-Taxonomic bias -Temporal bias -Abundance bias |
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What are the 7 key events in life's history?
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-Origin of earth
-Origin of life -Atmospheric O2 -Eukaryotes -Multicellularity -Animal diversification -Colonization of land |
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What did the early atmosphere of the earth consist of?
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-H2O vapor
-Volcanic gases *No O2 or ozone |
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When did the first cells appear in fossil record?
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~3.5 bya
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What is a prokaryote?
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Single-celled organisms w/o a membranous nucleus and few or no other organelles
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What comprise 2 of the 3 domains of life?
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prokaryotes
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Where is fossil cyanobacteria found?
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Stromatolites
-shallow, salty, tropical bays |
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What was the 4 step scenario to produce a basic cell?
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-Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
-Joining of small organic molecules into macromolecules -Polymers and monomers packed into membrane bound protocell droplets that maintain an internal environment -Self replication |
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Why is heredity essential to life?
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Pass on beneficial characteristics for survival/reproduction
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When did the first aquatic photosynthetic bacteria appear?
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~2.1-2.7 bya
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What is O2 a byproduct of?
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photosynthesis
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When was the oldest fossil of a eukaryotic cell?
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~1.6-2.1 bya
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When did multicellularity independently evolve in several different taxa?
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~1.5 bya
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When did the first animals appear?
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~580 mya
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When did the Cambrian explosion occur?
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~535-525 mya
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When did plants appear?
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~500 mya
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When did the first tetrapods appear?
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~360 mya
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What is adaptive radiation?
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A burst of speciation in a lineage
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What 2 things cause adaptive radiation?
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-Ecological opportunity
-New adaptations can lead to morphological innovation |
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What is ecological opportunity?
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Extinction of other species leads to previously unavailable opportunities
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What are the 2 ways new adaptations arise?
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-Modified versions of older structures
-Developmental gene modifications |
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What are 3 types of developmental gene modifications?
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-Changes in timing
-Changes in spatial pattern -New genes and changes in genes |
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What is paedomorphosis?
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Retention of juvenile characteristics
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What do hox genes determine?
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Changes in spatial pattern
-location of limb, bone, flower petal, etc. |
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What is background extinction?
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A few species lost on an ongoing basis
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What is mass extinction?
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Over 60% of species go extinct.
different lineages go extinct at approx. the same time |
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How many major extinctions have occurred in earths history?
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~5-6
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When did the Permian Mass Extinction occur?
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~250 mya
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How many living species went extinct in the Permian mass extinction?
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95% making it the largest mass extinction
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What is the Permian mass extinction associated with?
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Very rapid warming of climate
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When did the Cretaceous mass extinction occur?
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65 mya
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How many species were lost in the Cretaceous mass extinction?
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75-85% of species
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What caused the Cretaceous mass extinction?
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Asteroid or comet impact
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What is evolution?
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Genetic changes in population over time
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In what two time scales does genetic change occur?
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-Between generations (microevolution)
-Over many generations (macroevolution) |
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________ evolve, ________ do not.
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Populations, individuals
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What is the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium?
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allele and genotype frequencies will stay the same in a population between generations unless outside forces act to change those frequencies
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What are the 4 mechanisms of evolution?
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-Natural selection
-Genetic drift -Gene flow -Mutation |
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What is genetic drift?
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When chance events cause unpredictable changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next
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What is a population bottleneck?
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Severe reduction in population size causing random loss of individuals and alleles and shifting allele frequencies
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What is gene flow?
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Movement of alleles between populations via migration of individuals between those populations
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Natural selection always __________ advantageous allele frequencies and ________ disadvantageous allele frequencies
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Increases, decreases
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What are the 4 things that a species may differ in?
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-Morphology
-Physiology -Behavior -DNA Sequences |
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What is sexual dimorphism?
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Males and females of the same species appear very different
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What is the biological species concept?
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Population or group of populations whose members can potentially interbreed and have fertile offspring or can't successfully breed w/members of other populations
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What does reproductive isolation lead to?
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Genetic flow
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What are 2 types of reproductive barriers?
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-Prezygotic
-Postzygotic |
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What is a prezygotic reproductive barrier?
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No zygote forms
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What is a postzygotic reproductive barrier?
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Zygote does not survive or is infertile
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What are the 5 types of prezygotic reproductive barriers?
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-Habitat Isolation
-Temporal Isolation -Behavioral Isolation -Mechanical Isolation -Gametic Isolation |
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What is habitat isolation?
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2 species live in the same general area but in different habitats
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What is temporal isolation?
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2 species breed at different times of day seasons, years
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What is behavioral isolation?
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Species-specific signals and behaviors to attract mates
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What is mechanical isolation?
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Anatomical incompatibility- no sperm transfer
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What is gametic isolation?
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Gametes meet but no zygote formed
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What are the 3 types of postzygotic reproductive barriers?
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-Reduced hybrid viability
-Reduced hybrid fertility -Hybrid breakdown |
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What is reduced hybrid viability?
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Hybrid embryo dies
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What is reduced hybrid fertility?
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Offspring is healthy but usually sterile due to different chromosome numbers
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What is hybrid breakdown?
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First generation is viable and fertile. Second generation is feeble and sterile.
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What re the 2 basic patterns of speciation?
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-Anagenesis
-Cladogenesis |
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What is anagenesis?
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Change within a lineage
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What is cladogenesis?
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Lineage splitting
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What is allopatric speciation?
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Geographic separation restricts gene flow between 2 populations
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What is sympatric speciation?
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Biological factor creates 2 populations in the same area with reduced gene flow, with no geographic isolation
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What is polyploidy?
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accident during meiosis results in extra set of chromosomes
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What is autopolyploidy?
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2 species from 1
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What is phylogeny?
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The evolutionary history of a species or a group of species
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What is the order of the taxons?
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-Domain
-Kingdom -Phylum -Class -Order -Family -Genus -Species |
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What are the 7 kingdoms of the domain Eukarya?
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-Animalia
-Fungi -Amoebozoa -Plantae -Chromalveolata -Rhizaria -Excavata |
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What are the 4 advantages to scientific names?
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-Multiple regional common names
-The same common name can apply to more than one species -Not all scientific lit is published in the same language -Some species have no common name |
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What are sister taxas?
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Groups with the most recent common ancestor
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What is polytomy?
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A node where 3+ branches emerge
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What is a monophyletic group?
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Includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants
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What is a paraphyletic group?
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Includes an ancestral species and some but not all of its descendants
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What is a polyphyletic group?
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Includes some members with different ancestors
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What is convergent evolution?
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Taxa presented with similar environmental challenges often evolve similar traits
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What is a synapomorphy?
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A shared derived trait
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What is parsimony?
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Most likely hypothesis is the one that needs the least amount of change to explain actual results
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What is binary fission?
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Replication in bacteria
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What is a virus?
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Among the simplest of biological systems
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What surrounds nucleic acid in a virus?
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Protein coat
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What do some viruses have surrounding them?
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A lipid envelope embedded with proteins
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What kind of parasite is a virus?
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Obligate intracellular parasite
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What do viruses lack?
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Cellular organelles
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What 4 properties of life do viruses have?
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-They have a genotype
-They have a phenotype -They replicate -They undergo Darwinian evolution |
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What is a capsid
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protein shell that surrounds virus
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What is a viral envelope made from?
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Host membrane
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What is the problem with having an envelope that is made from the host membrane?
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Host doesn't recognize it as foreign
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What does a retrovirus use?
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Reverse transcriptase
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What is a viroid?
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Small circular single-stranded RNA
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What does a viroid do?
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Interferes with gene transcription
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What is a prion?
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Misfolded protein
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What do prions cause?
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Degenerative neural diseases
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How do prions change proteins into prions
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physical contact
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What are Bacteria and Archaea?
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Prokaryotes
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What do prokaryote chromosomes lack?
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introns
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What is peptidoglycan?
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Makes up the cell wall of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria.
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What is the function of peptidoglycan?
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Provides structure and osmotic protection
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Gram-Negative is usually more _______
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pathogenic
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What are fimbriae?
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Short hair-like structures that some bacteria and archaea use to stick to their host
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What are the 3 ways that prokaryotes can acquire new genes?
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-Transformation
-Transduction -Conjugation |
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What is transformation?
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Absorb foreign DNA through their cell walls
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What is transduction?
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Bacteriophage transfers between bacteria
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What is conjugation?
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Genes on chromosome or on plasmid code for conjugation bridge
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What is vertical gene transfer?
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Transfer of genes from parent to offspring
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What is horizontal gene transfer?
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Transfer of genes to another organism not via reproduction
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What is an extreme thermophile?
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Thrive in very hot environments
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What is a halophile?
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Survive in very high salinity
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What is a methanogen?
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Use CO2 to oxidize H2
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What is an acidophile?
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Smallest organisms known
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