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108 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cell theory |
All living things come from cells and a single cell is the smallest unit of life all cells come from pre-existing cells cells reproduce or split in two new cells in the most important aspect is they copy DNA |
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Three types of cell division |
Binary mitosis and meiosis |
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Facts about binary fission |
It is cell division in prokaryotes they only have one piece of DNA they copy DNA to split the two cells it is part of asexual reproduction |
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Facts about mitosis |
It is cell division in eukaryotes and is the most common in eukaryotes the cell clones itself and it is responsible for growth repair and asexual reproduction |
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Facts about meiosis |
Meiosis is the cell division in eukaryotes it does not make identical clones is required for only sexual production in the production of gametes it is only in the ovaries and the testes |
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Define asexual reproduction |
It is found in plants invertebrates animals in single cell organisms |
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Define sexual reproduction |
Exchange of genetic info is specialized in the reproductive cells or in the gametes are egg and sperm is common in most animals and even some plants |
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2 chemicals in DNA |
Chromatin and chromosomes |
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Facts about chromatin |
Involves DNA and protein and is Loosely packed it is a normal state of DNA it is very long and thin in the cell can get to the information |
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Facts about chromosomes |
It involves DNA and protein it is tightly packed it is used for cell division only is visible under a microscope and the cell cannot get to the information |
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Mitosis and DNA |
One cell divides into two the parent cell forms into two daughter cells makes identical genetic clones all started as a single cell then turned into trillions of cells it is the origin of stomatic cells |
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Somatic cells |
All cells except gametes or eggs or sperm cells for example the skin cells blood cells or bone cells |
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The cell cycle |
It is the life cycle of cells and has two major stages |
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Two major stages of the cell cycle |
Interphase and mitosis |
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List the three stages of interphase |
G1 s and G2 |
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What is the G1 stage |
Growth |
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What is the S stage |
Synthesis where DNA is copied |
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What is the G2 stage |
The second growth stage in prep for the cell division |
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What happens during the copying of DNA as part of the S stage |
It happens prior to cell division DNA copies are called sister chromatids the sister chromatids are held together at the centromere |
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Name the four stages of mitosis |
Prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase |
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What happens during prophase |
The spindle apparatus forms it helps the movement of chromosomes and is made of microtubules the chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nucleus breaks down |
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What happens during metaphase |
Chromosomes line up at the cells Center or equator it is the shortest phase |
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What happens during anaphase |
The spindle contracts at both ends it pulls apart at the sister chromatids one copy is pulled in each Direction |
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What happens during telophase |
The spindle breaks down and the nucleus reforms DNA on coils from the chromosomes back into chromatin cytokinesis occurs |
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What is cytokinesis and what is the difference between animals and plants during cytokinesis |
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm and organelles in animals it makes a cleavage Furrow and implants it makes a cell plate |
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What happens at cell checkpoints |
The cell cycle is stopped the sale will not move on to the next stage unless they are stimulated with growth factors there is several checkpoints and they have specific growth factors the cell remains alive but does not necessarily do anything until needed |
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What is density dependent growth |
Under normal circumstances the cell will grow and divide if space is detected in the cell will stop growing if it is too crowded |
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How does cancer protain to the cell cycle |
The cancer cells will ignore the checkpoints and growth so it will keep reproducing it is acquired genetic disease it is a problem with DNA in the cells it is not inherited but acquired by the cells |
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What are the mutations in cancer cells |
Multiple mutations or mistakes will happen in the DNA there will be either mutations in the checkpoints mutations and the growth factor or mutations in DNA repair genes and tumors can form |
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Metastasis |
The spread of a tumor |
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Angiogenesis |
When do blood vessels will grow to feed the tumor cells therefore leaving less food and oxygen to the healthy cells |
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How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have |
23 pairs |
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What types of chromosomes do we have |
We have homologous chromosomes we get one copy from each parent they are similar and genetic content shape and size they are not identical these are 22 pairs of autosomes chromosomes they are equal for both male and female the last pair is the sex chromosome |
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Define karyotype |
A photographic inventory of an individual's chromosomes |
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What are the chromosomes of a female |
Females have 22 autosomal pairs and the sex chromosome XX |
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What are the male karyotypes |
Males will have 22 autosomal Pairs and the sex chromosome XY |
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List facts about stomatic cells |
They're all cells except gametes they are diploid which is two copies of each homologous chromosomes and have 23 pairs |
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List facts about gametes |
They are haploid cells which is one copy of each homologous chromosome pair 23 total |
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What does mitosis do |
Growth repair in the stomatic cells |
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What does meiosis do |
Gamete formation occurs in sexual reproduction only mom and dad will supply 23 chromosomes each to get the 23 pairs for the new zygote the parent cells are diploid and the daughter cells are haploid they have two divisions so they will end up with 4 haploid daughter cells |
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Stages of meiosis |
Meiosis 1 or the first division occurs the tetrad pairs of homologous chromosomes will bind together then meiosis to the second division after the second division you have for non-identical haploid daughter cells |
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Genetic recombination |
Is the mixing of new jeans and can be beneficial the new combo could be better |
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List the three types of genetic recombination |
Independent assortment crossing over and sexual reproduction |
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What happens in independent assortment |
The orientation of one pair of chromosomes during meiosis is independent of all the other pairs |
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What is crossing over |
Chromosomes will often break and need to be repaired chromosomes may switch genetic information during tetrad formation this creates a new chromosome |
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What is sexual reproduction |
The combining of genes from two individuals one egg and one sperm to get a new zygote |
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What are some mistakes that could happen in genetic recombination |
Nondisjunction Trisomy and monosomy |
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What is nondisjunction |
It is a mistake in meiosis chromosomes will not separate |
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What happens in a Trisomy |
Fertilization of the game made with the chromosomal mistake can have serious consequences they will get an extra copy due to nondisjunction |
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What is monosomy |
It is a missing copy nearly always fatal for an autosome |
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What is a gene |
It is the basic unit of inheritance composed of DNA and gives information on how and when to build proteins and is located on the chromosomes |
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, what is an allele |
Different versions of the same gene for each gene there are two alleles |
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Define genotype |
Actual genes an organism has |
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Define phenotype |
The appearance of an organism or environmental influence |
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Define homozygous |
Having two copies of the same allele the same info from both mom and dad |
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Define heterozygous |
When Mom and Dad passed different alleles |
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Facts about Gregor Mendel |
He is the father of modern genetics he was a nineteenth-century monk and worked with calm and peas in his experiments he could pick the parents have controlled crosses and he applied the scientific method where he used to statistics for analysis he kept Good Records so simple traits to investigate and completed over 50,000 crosses |
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What are the three laws of inheritance |
Law of dominance law of segregation and law of independent assortment |
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Define law of dominance |
Two alleles for each trait or Gene the dominant allele has an uppercase letter it only takes one to be expressed or shows up in the phenotype it will mask the presence of the other allele called the recessive allele with the recessive allele it takes two to be expressed and gets masked by the dominant allele it is a lower case letter |
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Explain the law of segregation |
The two alleles for each trait separate during gamete formation so each gamete gets one allele during fertilization each gamete contribute one allele |
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Explain the law of independent assortment |
It applies when we're following two or more traits the alleles of one trait assort independently of alleles for all other traits the inheritance of an allele of one gene does not influence which allele is inherited at the second Gene |
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Explain incomplete |
When both alleles are equally expressed there is no dominant or recessive gene |
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Define pleiotrophy |
When one gene affects more than one trait |
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What is a homogoblin Gene |
A gene made of 4 polypeptide chains it carries oxygen to your cells and Carries carbon dioxide away from cells a healthy allele is HB with a superscript of a and a sickle-cell allele is an HP with a superscript of s |
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Define polygenic inheritance |
When one trait is governed by more than one gene and two or more genes are responsible |
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Define autosomal traits |
Located on one of the 22 autosomes they are on most of our genes |
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Define sex linked traits |
They're located on the sex chromosomes X or Y but are usually on the X chromosome since the Y is very small |
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Define autosomal dominant |
Only takes one copy of the gene to have the disease the capitol A is the disease allele and the lower case a is the wild-type or healthy meal |
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Define autosomal recessive |
One of the most common types of disorders the capital A is the healthy or wild-type allele and the lower case a is the disease allele |
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Sex linked traits |
x with a superscript of a capital A is the wild-type or healthy allele and a lowercase a connected to the x is the disease allele also women can be carriers of sex linked traits but men cannot |
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Define DNA |
Stores information on how and when to build proteins and is composed of sugar bases and phosphates as well as nucleotides |
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Four types of nucleotides are |
Adenine thymine cytosine and guanine |
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Idk |
Idk |
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What are the base pairs |
A connects to T & G connect to C |
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What are the three types of RNA |
MRNA TRNA and rrna |
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Define MRNA |
This is the messenger RNA it carries information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm it is a long single strand |
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Define TRNA |
This is Transfer RNA it transfers information from nucleotides to amino acids it is a single strand that folds on itself |
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Define rRNA |
Ribosomal RNA this forms the ribosome and place of protein synthesis |
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What are three major stages in eukaryotes |
Transcription processing and translation |
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What happens during transcription |
It occurs in the nucleus DNA of one gene on wines than RNA bases paired to a template Strand and make RNA copy of a gene it processes the MRNA only in eukaryotes it has exons with important information and introns with no function it has enzymes that cut out the introns and reassemble the exons and you end up with a mature mRNA |
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What happens during translation |
RNA turns into a protein in the cytoplasm this is also where we see the genetic code used to get nucleotides to amino acids it is a cell's genetic language it is universal so it's the same for all living things and it's degenerate so more than one code for each amino acid |
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What are the three stages of translation |
Initiation elongation and termination |
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Define initiation |
Getting all the chemicals together |
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Define elongation |
Adding one amino acid at a time to build the protein |
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Define termination |
The end of the protein building process |
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What are some other things that happened during initiation |
Ribosomes have two spaces to recoat codons they attach to the MRNA and start codons TRNA binds to the codon |
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What are the things happened during elongation |
TRNA an anticodon binds to a codon and brings in one amino acid the amino acid is added to the chain |
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Other facts about termination |
The stop codon puts an end to the AA chain |
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Define prokaryotic gene expression |
When an offer on one group of genes under coordinated control and bacteria |
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Define eukaryotic genes |
Each eukaryotic Gene has its own promoter and Terminator many different factors are used to regulate eukaryotic gene expression physical packaging of DNA may affect gene expression usually can be switched on or off |
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Define mutations |
Mistakes and DNA replication that are very rare there are many types of mistakes DNA nucleotides have slight chemical instability and not all are harmful and many are associated with diseases |
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Types of mutation |
Frameshift point mutation silent mutation missense mutation and nonsense mutation |
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Define recombinant DNA |
Formed by joining two pieces of DNA from two different sources |
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Define gene cloning |
What sources of DNA genes of interest to be cloned off in a human gene |
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Transgenic plants |
Increase in nutritional value genes that confer pest resistance to crop genes that synchronize the timing of fruit ripening |
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Transgenic animal |
Genetic engineering of an animal typically adding one or more genes to livestock sector is usually a modified virus the cell structure doesn't work on animal cells you get one gene of Interest into the egg cell to get a production of human proteins for Medical Treatments and alter livestock to increase quality |
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What is gene therapy |
Altering human genes in an attempt to treat a disease first attempts to cure a genetic disease not simply treat the symptoms there are many limitations though how do we get specific cells how do we regulate how much protein is made how do we get the recumbent DNA into many cells |
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Define sexual dimorphism |
Male and female of the species that often look different |
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Define sexual selection |
Result of a special case of natural selection |
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Define intrasexual selection |
Male to male aggressive conflict |
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Intersexual selection |
Males convince females to choose them as a partner |
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Define evolution |
Changes in allele frequencies in a population over time |
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Define allele frequencies |
How common is an allele in a group |
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Mechanisms of evolution |
Mutation genetic shift migration and natural selection |
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Define reproductive isolation |
The isolation of a species gene pool and prevent interbreeding |
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Define allopatric speciation |
Geographic or physical barrier that prevents gene flow |
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Define sympatric speciation |
The physical barrier is not involved |
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List the trends of human evolution in order |
Bipedal movement brain size increases Brownridge decreases more refined and having omnivore tendencies |
