Biology Final

Front 1

a heritable change in the genetic material

Back 1

Mutation

Front 2

affects only a single base pair

Back 2

Point mutation

Front 3

do not alter the amino acid sequence

Back 3

Silent/Neutral mutations

Front 4

normal codon changed into a stop/termination codon

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Nonsense

Front 5

addition or deletion of nucleotides (1, 2, 4, 5)

(completely different sequence downstream)

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Frameshift

Front 6

may alter regulation of transcription

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Transcriptional response element

Front 7

may prevent proper translational regulation

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Translational response elements

Front 8

when mutated at boundaries between introns and exons, may not be able to splice properly and remove introns

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Splice Junctions

Front 9

replica plating to show that mutations are random events

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Lederbergs (Joshua & Ester)

Front 10

may or may not be found in all cells of a multicellular organism

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gene mutation

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can occur in any cell of the body at any time

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Mutation in:
-gamete
-zygote
-embryo
-juvenile
-adult...

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the exact time and location of this is critical to severity of effect and ability to pass

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Germ-line or Somatic Cell Mutations

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ALL cells from ______ will carry mutation

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Gamete

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offspring WILL carry mutation

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Fertilized mutant gamete

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Offspring have 50% chance of passing this

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Mutation

Front 16

all other body cells

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Somatic Cells

Front 17

result from patches of mutated tissue

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Genetic Mosaic

Front 18

result from abnormailities in biological processes

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Spontaneous mutations

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brought on by environmental agents

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Induced mutations

Front 20

chemical or physical agents that disrupt pairing or interrupt with replication

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Mutagens

Front 21

_____ rate > ______ rate

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Mutation > spontaneous

Front 22

has high energy, penetrates deep into biological materials
-xrays
-gamma rays

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Ionizing Radiation

Front 23

has less energy, penetrates surface
-UV rays

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Nonionizing Radiation

Front 24

enzyme removes a modification
not common

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Direct Repair of DNA

Front 25

strand removed and new segment synthesized

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Altered DNA repair

Front 26

most common repair system
region in damaged strand removed
strand used for re-synthesis

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Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER)

Front 27

-exist in ALL species
-remove mismatch segments
-repair NEW strand NOT parent strand

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Methyl-directed mismatch repair systems

Front 28

role is to distinguish between daughter and parental strands

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MutH

Front 29

-uncontrolled cell division
-multi stop process
-originate from a single cell
-cells grow abnormally

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Cancer

Front 30

80% of cancers are related to _______ exposure

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Carcinogens

Front 31

stage of cancer where you lose growth regulation

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Malignant

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stage where the cancer invades healthy tissue

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Invasive

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stage where cancer migrates

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Metastatic

Front 34

hormone that regulates cell division

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Growth Factors

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may promote cancer by keeping cell division signaling pathway "on"

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Oncogenes

Front 36

change in a single amino acid

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Missense mutations

Front 37

too much of encoded protein

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Gene Amplifications

Front 38

2 different chromosomes break then fuse together

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Chromosomal Translocations

Front 39

results in over-expression which leads to cancer

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Retroviral Insertions

Front 40

found in bacterial chromosomes

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Genes of bacteria

Front 41

region where tightly packed bacterial chromosome is found

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Nucleoid

Front 42

-molecules of double-stranded DNA
-compacted 1,000-fold

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Bacterial Chromosomes

Front 43

-small, circular pieces of DNA independent of bacterial chromosome

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Plasmids

Front 44

-has own origin of replication independent of bacterial chromosome

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Plasmids

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plasmid that can integrate into bacterial chromosome

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Episome

Front 46

contains genes that confer resistance against antibiotics

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Resistance Plasmids

Front 47

enable bacterium to digest and utilize substances

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Degradative Plasmids

Front 48

encode colicines (proteins that kill each other)

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Col Plasmids

Front 49

turn bacterium into pathogenic strain

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Virulence Plasmids

Front 50

allow bacteria to mate with each other

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Fertility Plasmids

Front 51

can form in less than a day and has 10-100 million cells

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Bacteria Colony

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how bacteria reproduces

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Binary Fission

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does not involve genetic contributions from 2 parents

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asexual reproduction

Front 54

may replicate independently of bacterial chromosome

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Plasmids

Front 55

show a great deal of genetic diversity

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Bacteria

Front 56

a lineage that has genetic differences compared to another strain

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Bacterial Strain

Front 57

2 sources:
1. Mutations
2. Genetic Transfer

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Genetic Diversity

Front 58

can occur that alter the bacterial genome and affect that traits of bacterial cells

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Mutations

Front 59

genetic material is transferred from one bacterial cell to another

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Genetic Transfer

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3 ways that Genetic Transfer can occure

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1. Conjugation
2. Transformation
3. Transduction

Front 61

direct physical interaction tranfers genetic material from donor to receipient cell

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Conjugation

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DNA released from dead bacterium into environment and taken up by another

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Transformation

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virus transfers genetic information from one bacterium to another

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transduction

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attachment
entry
integration
synthesis of viral components
viral assembly
release

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Basic steps of Viruses life cycle

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specific for one kind of cell due to binding to specific molecules on cell surface

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Attachment

Front 66

phages inject its DNA into bacteria
-viral genes are expressed immediately

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Entry

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viral gene for synthesis of integrase (cuts host DNA and inserts viral genome)

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Integration

Front 68

replication of viral genome
and
synthesis of capsid proteins

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Synthesis of Viral components

Front 69

some viruses self assemble
others have proteins that act as "scaffolding"

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Viral Assembly

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new viruses leave the host cell
(phages must lyse host cell to escape)
virus goes to find next host

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Release

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-an enveloped animal virus containing single stranded RNA
-causative agent of AIDS
-RNA virus
-entire virus enters host
-budding process of cell
-new viruses bud from host and release

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HIV

Front 72

2 or more atoms bonded together

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molecule

Front 73

2 or more elements bonded together

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compound

Front 74

-atoms share a pair of electrons
-outer shells not full
-strongest bonds

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Covalent

Front 75

-weak individually, strong in volume
-hold DNA strands together

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Hydrogen bond

Front 76

when a cation (+) bonds to an anion (-)

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Ionic bond

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carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
-sugars

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Carbohydrates

Front 78

mostly hydrogen and carbon atoms
-fats

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Lipids

Front 79

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others
-amino acids

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Proteins

Front 80

responsible for storage, expression, and transmission of genetic information
-DNA
-RNA

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Nucleic Acids

Front 81

determines function

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DNA structure

Front 82

building blocks of RNA and DNA
1. phosphates
2. sugars
3. nitrogens

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Nucleotides

Front 83

covalent linkages of nucleotides
- directionality 5' to 3;
- have complements
-are antiparallel

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strand of DNA

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two strands of DNA

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Double helix

Front 85

proteins associated with DNA

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chromosomes

Front 86

the complete complement of an organism's genetic material

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Genome

Front 87

4 levels of structure:
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary

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Protein Structure

Front 88

amino acids
determined by genes

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Primary

Front 89

folding, pleated sheets, random coils

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Secondary

Front 90

3-D shape

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Tertiary

Front 91

made of 2 or more polypeptides
(protein subunits, multimeric proteins)

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Quaternary

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1. hydrogen bonds
2. ionic bonds
3. hydrophobic effects
4. Van der Waals forces
5. Disulfide bridges

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Factors promoting protein folding

Front 93

seperates the internal contents of the cell from its external environment

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Plasma membrane

Front 94

basic framework of the membrane

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phospholipid bilayer

Front 95

water diffuses thu membrane from more water to area with less water

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Osmosis

Front 96

enable biological membranes to be selectively permeable

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Transport proteins

Front 97

how cells break down glucose to get the energy they need for metabolic processes

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Photosynthesis

Front 98

energy within light is captured and used to synthesize carbohydrates

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Photosynthesis

Front 99

organelles that carry out photosynthesis

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Chloroplast

Front 100

6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

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photosynthesis

Front 101

agent that speeds up the chemical reaction without being consumed

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Catalyst

Front 102

protein catalysts in living cells

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Enzymes

Front 103

sum total of ALL chemical reactions that occur within an organism

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Metabolism

Front 104

cells obtain energy from organic molecules

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Cellular Respiration

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Organic molecules + O2 --> CO2 + H2O + Energy

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cellular respiration

Front 106

1. glycolysis
2. breakdown pyruvate
3. citric acid cycle
4. oxidative phosphorylation

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breakdown of glucose

Front 107

energy investment
cleavage
energy liberation

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Glycolysis

Front 108

acetyl CoA
NADH

Back 108

Pyruvate breakdown

Front 109

cabon dioxide, ATP

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CAC

Front 110

occurs by ATP synthase

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Ox. phosphorylation

Front 111

color, shape, texture

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character

Front 112

actual appearance of a character

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trait

Front 113

TT, tt, Tt

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Genotypes

Front 114

TT= Tall
Tt = Tall
tt = short

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Phenotypes

Front 115

structures in living cells that contain genetic material

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chromosomes

Front 116

synthesis
replication
compaction
segregation

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4 Essential DNA processes

Front 117

G1
S
G2

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Interphase

Front 118

Pro
Meta
Telo
Ana

Back 118

Mitosis

Front 119

cells divide by furrowing of the plasma membrane

Back 119

Cytokinesis

Front 120

Pro 1
meta 1
ana 1
telo 1
pro 2
meta 2
ana 2
telo 2

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Meiosis I and II