Biology Final

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Variant sequences of the same gene

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Allele

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sections of DNA sequence that generally code for proteins

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Gene

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DNA information converted to mRNA

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transcription

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converts mRNA information to proteins

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translation

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a change or error in DNA sequence

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mutation

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DNA to RNA
RNA to Protein
(replication,transcription, translation)

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Central Dogma Theory

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change and adaption over time

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evolution

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threadlike strand of DNA and proteins in the nucleus of a cell

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chromosome

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an organism that has different pairs of genes or alleles

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heterozygote

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an organism that has identical pairs of genes or alleles

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homozygote

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organism having a single set of chromosomes

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haploid

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organism having two sets of chromosomes; the normal amount of DNA per cell which is one from each parent

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diploid

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the process of cell division in sexually producing organisms; reduces the # of chromosomes in reproductive cell from diploid to haploid

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meiosis

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cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

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mitosis

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change in the frequency in which a specific gene occurs in a population

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genetic drift

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the number of individuals of the same species in a specific environment

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population

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when a single gene influences multiple phenotypic traits

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plietropy

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a mutation of one gene that masks the effect of another gene

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epistasis

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the tendency of certain alleles to be inherited together

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Genetic Linkage

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phenotypic effect of interactions between genes and the environment

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GxE ( Genetics by Environment)

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A measure of how common an allele is in a population; the proportion of all alleles at one gene locus that are of one specific type in a population

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allele frequency

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evolutionary theory stating that species evolve slowly and continuously over long periods of time

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Gradualism

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theory that over time the earth evolved through the same natural geological processes that still exist today

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uniformitarianism

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states that both allele and genotypic frequencies remain constant

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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

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occurs wehn natural selections favors a single phenotype. also shifts allele frequency in one direction

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directional selection

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changes in population genetics in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values

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disruptive selection

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selection driven by the competition for mates

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sexual selection

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genetic diversity decreases as the population stabilizes a particular trait value

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stabilizing selection

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the degree of adaptation of an organism to its environment

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fitness

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where the heterozygote genotype has a higher relative fitness than the homozygotic dominant or recessive genotype

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heterozygote advantage

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a way of viewing the world that focuses on OBJECTIVE information

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science

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an explanantion of why and how a specific natural phenomenon occurs

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scientific theory

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the genetic transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring

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Heredity

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the total genetic content contained in a haploid set of chromosomes

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Genome

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a pair of chromosomes containing the same gene frequencies, each from one parent

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Homologous chromosomes

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formation of new combinations of genes most commonly occuring between 2 sets of parental chromosomes

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recombination

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the entire genetic makeup of an individual

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genotype

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the observable physical characteristics of an organism

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phenotype

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how genes are distributed in populations and how gene and genotype frequencies stay constant or change due to the 4 evolutionary forces
(natural selection, gentic drift, mutation, migration)

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Population Genetics

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loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a small number of individuals

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Founder effect

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changes in gene frequency that result when numbers in a population are drastically reduced.

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Bottleneck effect

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having only one spouse at a time

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Monogamy

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having more than one husband at a time

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Polyandry

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having more than one wife at a time

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Polygny

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the act of mating closely related individuals

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inbreeding

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majority of evolutionary change is caused by random drift of selectively natural mutants

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Natural Theory of Evolution

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when one species divergees to become two or more species

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speciation

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process that prevents the members of two different species that mate to produce offspring

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reproductive isolation

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prevents an egg from being fertilized

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Prezygotic Barrier

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prevents a fertilized egg from developing into a fertile adult

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Postzygotic Barrier

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speciation occuring in the same geographic region

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sympatric speciation

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speciation occuring in different geographic regions

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Allopatric Speciation

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shows the evolutionary interrelationships among various species believed to have a common ancestor

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phylogenetic tree

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evolutionary history of an organism

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phylogeny

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name or classifaciation of a species

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taxa

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a group of species that share features inherited from a common ancestor

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clade

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group of organiisms that consists of an ancestor and ALL of its descendants

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monophyletic group

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group of organims that consist of a common ancestor and SOME of its descendants

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paraphyletic group

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group of organisms NOT including a common ancestor

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Polyphyletic group

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the species that is the most closely related to another given species

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sister species

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trait shared by a group of organisms as a result of descent from a common ancestor

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ancestral trait

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trait that has changed from an ancestral state

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derived trait

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any similarity between characteristics of organisms dure to their shared ancestry

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Homology

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correspondance between parts or organs acquired by evolution or convergence

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Homoplasy

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development of similar structures in unrelated organisms

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Convergent Evolution

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unicellular organism; lacks a nucleus ; first life on earth

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Prokaryote

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transfer of genetic material from one cell to another

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conjugation

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transfer of genetic material from one cell to another by a virus

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transduction

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transforming one functor into another while respecting internal structure

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Natural Transformation

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organsims incorporates genetic material from another organism without being the offspring

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Horizontal gene transfer

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the protein manufacturig machinery of all living cells

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mRNA

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organism whose cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a membrane and whose DNA is bound together by protein into chromosomes

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Eukaryote

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thoery that Eukaryotic cells evolved from Prokaryotic cells

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Theory of Endosymbiosis

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the alternation of gametophyte and sporophyte stages in the life cycle of a plant

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Alternation of Generations

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in plants the multicellular structure that is haploid containg a single set of chromosomes

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gametophyte

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in plants, the diploid sexual spore producing generation

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sporophyte

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tissue that conducts water adn nutrients through the plant body

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vascular tissue

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pores in leaves used for gas exchange

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stomata

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reproduction involving the union of gametes

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sexual reproduction

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gametes from the same individual

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Self-fertilization

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gamates from different individuals ; what humans usually think of as sex

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Outcrossing

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how are gametes produced?

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by meiosis

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can sex increase variation?

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yes , Sex can increase variation within populations by combining different genomes and permitting recombination between chromosomes

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reproduction without the fusion of gametes

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Asexual reproduction

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can asexual reproduction increased variation

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NO, Asexual reproduction alone cannot increase genetic variation in a population

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what are major sex problems in evolutionary biology?

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1. sex reduces a parent contribution of alleles by half
2. finding a mate requires both time and energy
3. sex breaks up combinations of alleles
4. sex often requires males, which do not produce offspring

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Coevolutionary interactions between hosts and pathogens (parasites) continually select for sex in the host population

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Red Queen Hypothesis

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Parasites generally have faster generation times than hosts
They rapidly evolve to infect the most common host genotype
Producing rare genotypes should decrease the probability of infection in offspring
Sex is capable of producing rare genotypes, asex is not

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Red Queen Predictions

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clonial females produce females only and sexual females produces males and females. after 2 generations the clonial female has produced 4 times as many daughters as the sexual female. This advantage in daughter production by clones comes as a direct result of the fact that sexual females produce males, which don't make any progeny on their own.

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Cost of males

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any significant change in measures of climate (such as temperature, precipitation, or wind) lasting for an extended period (decades or longer).

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Climate change

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Trapping and build-up of heat in the atmosphere (troposphere) near the Earth’s surface

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Greenhouse effect

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Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, and Flourinated gas are examples of

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Greenhouse gases

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(popularly termed missing links) any fossil which gives us information about a transition from one species to another. (Or, about a transition from one group of species to another group of species.)

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Transitional Fossil

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argument that certain biological systems are too complex to have evolved from simpler, or "less complete" predecessors, through natural selection acting upon a series of advantageous naturally-occurring, chance mutations.

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Irreducible Complexity