Biology Exam Three

Front 1

What are the two categories of environmental factors that Ecology touches?

Back 1

1. organismal ecology (autecology)
2.dynamics of entire biosphere

Front 2

What is Autecology? What are the three things they focus on?

Back 2

1. behavioral
2. physiological
3. morphological

ways individual interact with environment

Front 3

Three factors of Population Ecology?

Back 3

1. Population size and competition
2. Demography
3. Life History

Front 4

Four factors of Community ecology?

Back 4

1. Predation
2. Competition
3. Disease
4. Mutualism

Front 5

Define Ecosystem?

Back 5

entire collection of species in the same place at the same time w/ abiotic factors, it's the cycle of energy and chemicals among biotic and abiotic

Front 6

How is solar radiation measured?

Back 6

it varies with latitude, varies by season, tilt of the earth on axis, defined relative to northern hemisphere, results in differential heating of earths surface

Front 7

What are Hadley cells?

Back 7

they are global air circulation patterns that affect moisture levels at different latitudes

Front 8

The earth rotates _______ to _______ on it's axis. (since it's a sphere, it's diameter varies with latitude)

Back 8

west to east

Front 9

At the equator the surfaces are moving at approximately _______mi/hr. However, at the poles, surfaces are virtually ____________.

Back 9

1000, stationary

Front 10

Coriolis force:

Back 10

the different land speed at different latitudes causes a deflection in the circulating air masses

Front 11

Describe three normal weather and rain patterns:

Back 11

1. west-blowing winds push warm water west
2. as warm surface water is moved west, deep cold waters near South America come up to take it's place
3. This cool water stops evaporation and the creation of clouds. This is why the Galapagos islands and the coast of Peru are dry/deserts

Front 12

Mid latitude west coasts have ____ climates and east coasts are ___________.

Back 12

dry, humid

Front 13

What effect do the Mountains have on the weather?

Back 13

- air mass is force up windward side, and as air rises, it cools, warm air holds more water, so air will cool to dew point and it rains!
-as air descends, it warms up, but it's already dropped its water so the east side of the mountain have warm, dry air.

Front 14

In the northern hemisphere ______ facing slopes are warmer and drier than ______ facing slopes.

Back 14

south, north

Front 15

dN/dt=rN

what is it, what does everything stand for?

Back 15

this is the equation describing exponential population growth. N is population size, r is intrinsic growth rate and t= time, rN is future population size depends on r and current population size

Front 16

The model dN/dt=rN is only appropriate for describing what type of population?

Back 16

initial phases of population growth in empty habitats, it is positive feedback

Front 17

r selected species have high r values which allow for what?

Back 17

high population growth, they do best in empty habitats

Front 18

The logistic population growth assumes an upper limit carrying capacity (K). THis model is:

Back 18

dN/dt=rN(1-N/K) where N is population size, r is growth rate, K is carrying capacity. When Ni is small, (1-N/K) then you can basically use dN/dt=rN, the regular population growth one, a N approaches K, then the growth rate goes to zero, it all makes sense

Front 19

Assumptions of a population where you use the logistic growth model:

Back 19

-constant environment
-constant K
-homogeneous population
-not characters the human population exhibits

Front 20

Types of survivorship curves:

Back 20

type 1: species die old age
type 111: death among young

-so type 1 should reproduce at a higher rate because there is a greater proportion of individuals at a reproductive age

Front 21

What did Thomas Malthus point out: (2)

Back 21

1. the human population grows geometrically, while resources available to support it grow arithmetically
2. unchecked populations will outgrow food supply

Front 22

What is the equation that tells us the population size at time t in the future?

Back 22

Nt=N0e^rt

Front 23

What was Easter Island?

Back 23

an island where there was polynesian people over populated this tiny island and it collapsed

Front 24

current world population:

Back 24

7*10^9

Front 25

Predation:

Back 25

+/- interactions between species where prey does not survive the interaction

Front 26

Parasitism:

Back 26

prey is larger than predator and not always killed

Front 27

Herbivory:

Back 27

plant is prey, survival of prey is more common

Front 28

T of F: The stabilization is purely a side effect of the actions of individuals in other species perusing their self interest

Back 28

True

Front 29

T or F: Predators do not play a role in the density-dependent growth of prey populations

Back 29

False

Front 30

Kaibab deer story:

Back 30

- in 1905 deer population in Kaibab Plateau was 4,000-300,000
- 1907 the Forest Service tried to get rid of predation of deer by removing a ton of mean animals
-1923, deer were near starvation because the ranges "conditions" were deplored
(crash due to overgrazing)

Front 31

Give two examples of common agents that are used as biological control agents (predators) to control plant pests:

Back 31

- ladybug beetles to control aphids
- wasps to capture and lay eggs in butterfly and moth larvae

Front 32

Flies in Australia are bad, so they introduced dung burying beetles to make the dung unavailable to flies...but things went wrong:

Back 32

the invasive cane toad sat near dung and ate beneficial beetles as landed and then beetles burrowed out of stomach and killed toads

Front 33

Northern: One predator and one prey Southern: prey swathing= more stability. T or F?

Back 33

True

Front 34

Chemical Defenses as anti-predator adaptations:

Back 34

alkaloids: coca, tobacco, formic acid in ants

Front 35

Name the four anti-predator adaptions:

Back 35

1. escape detection: camouflage
2. static defenses: weapons, shells, spines
3. deception: aggressive, batsian and mullerian mimicry
4. flight: running, flight, startles

Front 36

Batesian mimicry:

Back 36

a harmless species mimics a harmful one, frequency dependent

Front 37

Inducible defenses:

Back 37

only when highly preyed on, do mussels grow thicker shells

Front 38

cicada swarms do what?

Back 38

emerge at 13-17 year intervals in large number to swamp bird predators

Front 39

Chemical defenses in animals: newts and garter snakes

Back 39

-TTX is emitted form newts, but garter snake had evolved resistance to TTX

Front 40

pocket gophers are parasitzed by lice:

Back 40

so lice and pocket gopher co-speciate

Front 41

Mutualism and Symbiosis is what?

Back 41

- different species co-evolve to collaborate for mutal gain, and there is an association between two species that confers mutual fitness for both, ants and aphids (honeydew for protection)

Front 42

What are the 5 types of mutualism Janzen describes?

Back 42

1. Harvest
2. Pollination
3. Seed Dispersal
4. Protective
5. Human Agriculture/ Animal Husbandry

Front 43

Facultative Mutualism definition and what is it opposite of?

Back 43

-type of mutualism where two species get benefits from each other but they don't need each other to survive, opposite of obligate mutualism where they can't survive with out the other

Front 44

Cellular Endosymbionts:

Back 44

Organism lives within body or cell of another, mito: aerobic respiration, cholor: photosynthesis

Front 45

Leaf cutter ants mutualism: symbiotic (ants and fungus)

Back 45

-similar to animal agriculture, the leaf cutter ants make gardens by growing fungus on leaves they cut and collect, they consume 10-15% leaves and cause recycling in tropical forests, they carry fungus from leaf to new nest, additional mutualism between ants , fungus and bacteria that makes antibiotics that control mold

Front 46

Describe the symbiosis between ants and acacia plants:

Back 46

ants protect plants by pruing away competing plants and the acacia plants have special adaptations to allow ants to live on them
-psedomyrmex ants
1. patrol leaves and remove eggs
2. bite intruders
3. trim vines and other plants
4. protect from herbivores

-then the acacia feeds ant with nectar and Beltian bodies and provides them a place to live

Front 47

Pollination as mutualism: explain

Back 47

angiosperm are pollinated by animals and animals get nectar (10-16% mono di), construction materials and food

Front 48

flowers as "selective racetrack"

Back 48

fittest pollen grains mate and select against bad genes, pollen tube is haploid, overpopulation on stigma allows for more intense competition,

Front 49

Why is it good to be pollinator specific?

Back 49

-increases fertilization rate and reduces waste of pollen
-they co evolve with their pollinator (especially when there is obligate mutualism- host specificity drives the coevolution)
-tropics!

Front 50

Individuals and species that do not attempt to capture scarce necessary resources go extinct and therefore...

Back 50

selection has favored individuals (and their species) that have evolved to withstand and do well under competition

Front 51

intraspective:

Back 51

within the members of the same species

Front 52

Two types of competition:

Back 52

1. scramble- (strong in plants) individuals compete by removing resources, no contact required
2. interference (direct) -reduction in competitors ability to obtain resources without consuming the resources can be direct and physical or subtle

Front 53

Preemptive competition is what type of competition:

Back 53

-interference: barnacles make no space available, overgrowth competition, allelopathy are chemical interferences (chaparral shrubs in cali)

Front 54

Name 5 competitive mechanisms:

Back 54

1. preemptive competition
2. overgrowth competiton
3. allelopathy (chemical interference)
4. territorial competition
5. encounter competition (fight over a kill)

Front 55

Interspecies competition occurs when:

Back 55

niches of two species overlap

Front 56

Gause's competitive exclusion principle:

Back 56

-two species cna not coexist forever on same limiting resource
-did exp. with paramecium

Front 57

In nature, species exist together, how can they do this? (3 reasons)

Back 57

1. niche multidimensionality: many factors define the niche
2. spatial and temporal heterogeneity among species: not coexisting in same space and time
3. disturbance : keeps below K, one species is not dominant under all conditions

Front 58

Two diff't types of nich:

Back 58

1. fundamental nich: species niche int he absence of competition
2. realized niche: species' niche in presence of competition

Front 59

Explain Connell's Barnacle Experiment:

Back 59

b and c larvae overlap and c resist desiccation better than b, so connell removed the barnacle b that lives on lower rock: result: c thrived where b did not survive. b crowded out c in lower regions

Front 60

the fundamental niche of the meadow vole is only grassland and the same as it's realized niche. the fundamental niche of the red-backed vole is forest and grassland but int he presence of the meddow vole, it's realized niche is what? why?

Back 60

the forest, competition constrains its distribution

Front 61

Predation cause disturbance can enhance species coexistence. T or F

Back 61

True

Front 62

Predation can influence the outcome of competition T or F

Back 62

True

Front 63

Keystone predator:

Back 63

a predator species that causes disturbance allowing more species to coexist

Front 64

competition is a -/- interaction so they try to avoid it... it leads to what?

Back 64

niche differentiation or resource partitioning or the change in species traits called character displacement

Front 65

Interspecific competition: narrow niche breadth

Intraspecific competition: widen niche breadth

Back 65

true

Front 66

In character displacement, an evolutionary effect of competition, species show greater differences when they are sympatric than when they are

Back 66

allopatric

Front 67

Communities of multiple species evolve how?

Back 67

-character displacement among multiple species along resource gradient: resource partitioning

Front 68

ecological consequences of competition:

Back 68

1. coexistence with reduction in abundance, survival and fecundity
2. ecological exclusion
3. habitat partitioning (warbler forage in diff't parts of tree)

Front 69

evolutionary consequences of competition:

Back 69

1. greater morphological differences between species when together
2.

Front 70

evolutionary consequences of competition:

Back 70

1. greater morphological differences between species when together
2.

Front 71

Evolutionary consequences of competition:

Back 71

1. greater morphological differences between species when together
2. evolution of traits that enhance competitive ability (allelopathy)
3. ghost of past competition

Front 72

identifiable patterns of predation among species in a community is called a:

Back 72

food chain, starts with a primary producer (autotrophs) that fix energy (photosynthesis), eaten by heterotroph consumers, links=trophic levels

Front 73

name the trophic levels

Back 73

level 1: primary producer
level 2: herbivores
level 3: primary carnivore
level 4: secondary carnivore
(flow is up the pyramid)

Front 74

ecological efficiency:

Back 74

ratio of energy stored in a trophic level divided by the energy stored in the next lower trophic level

Front 75

T of F: Toxic chemicals flow up and are more concentrated at higher levels of food chains

Back 75

True

Front 76

PCBs in fish are an issue, safe fish:

Back 76

sole, flounder little fat where toxins are stored

Front 77

Grasshopper effect:

Back 77

high levels of toxic pollutants transported to arctic by winds from power plants, seals are top predators and and seals have high mercury levels, inuit get 60% protein from seals have an issue

Front 78

Top-down:

Back 78

top of food chain (predators) sets size of populations lower down the chain, they regulate prey pop sizes, like removal of Kiabab NF increased deer heards or introduction of moth to cactus with no predators led to uncontrolled growth

Front 79

Example of Top Down:

Back 79

orcas switched from seals to otters- otters dropped- urchins rose- kelp decreases

Front 80

Bottom up:

Back 80

bottom of chain sets the size of the populations higher up on the chain. Ex. farmers increase fertilizer for soil and larger crops grow that feed more cattle

Front 81

Succession:

Back 81

temporal changes in species composition associated with colonizing an empty habitat

Front 82

Changes associated with succession:

Back 82

1. species composition of the community changes from pioneer to climax
2. diversity increases, initially
3. biomass increases and proportion of large organisms increase-self thinning
4. decrease in primary production relative to respiration from p>R to p=r
5. switch in life histories from r to K

Front 83

What are the primary drivers in climate change?

Back 83

greenhouse gases emitted by human activities

Front 84

Most climate scientists believe that climate change is at fault of humans. T or F

Back 84

True

Front 85

What is the greenhouse effect?

Back 85

CO2 and CH4 in the atmosphere trap solar radiation--like a greenhouse glass retains heat; the sun puts solar radiation through the clear atmosphere, and is absorbed by earths surface and warms it. Some is reflected. Infrared radiation is emitted from the Earth's surface, some of it passes through the atmosphere and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules.

Front 86

How much has average global temperature risen since the late 19th century (and continues to rise)?

Back 86

.5-1.0 F, and levels of greenhouse gasses are increasing

Front 87

What has been the main cause of the CO2 build-up in the last 250 years?

Back 87

emissions from fossil fuels (confirmed by reduction of C-14) and deforestation, however fossil fuels provide 80% of civilization's energy today

Front 88

Observed effects of warming: (8)

Back 88

1. coastal glaciers disappearing
2. mountain glaciers disappearing
3. permafrost thawing
4. sea ice shrinking
5. greenland is melting, antartica
6. sea level rising
7. species moving
8. evaporation, storm intensity and rainfall increasing

Front 89

What does the melting of permafrost do?

Back 89

-causes the release of CO2 and methane
-methane gas is stored in frozen permafrost, it's a potent greenhouse gas, 25x more powerful than carbon dioxide

Front 90

The arctic is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet T or F

Back 90

True

Front 91

If the North Polar ice cap is sea ice, it's floating and does not change sea level when it melts but the....bad effect is:

Back 91

the reduced reflectivity when the ice is replaced by water amplifies the warming effect of greenhouse

Front 92

Greenland is melting, causing sea level to rise. Ice shelves: what are they?

Back 92

grounded off shore, if they are moved because of increased T, ice will flow faster into the sea, increasing the melting rate

Front 93

If all melted, how much would it add to the sea: Greenland, West Antarctic Ice Sheet, East Antarctic Ice Sheet-

Back 93

7m, 5m, 60m

Front 94

Sea level rise due to:

Back 94

1. Thermal expansion- half of rise due to .7 C temp increase, responsible for 7cm rise
2. Melting of mountain glaciers and ice sheets, faster than thought (West x20)

Front 95

About half of _____________________ CO2 is dissolved in the ocean. This forms carbonic acid, it has made the ocean 30% more acidic since 1750. Threatens marine life. (species use calcium carbonate, base species)

Back 95

anthropogenic

Front 96

What species are hurt most by the changes in the marine?

Back 96

Heat stress causes coral bleaching, corals expel symbiotic algae, leaving white bones, ocean acidification reduces marine organisms ability to build shells and skeletons, slow or stop growth by 2100

Front 97

Southwestern Deserts: wildfire and invasive species

Back 97

-nonnative grasses becoming established in deserts (red brom, buffelgrass)
-grasses transform desert into flammable grassland: fire-adapted grasses re-establish quickly, pushing out native species
-spread of grasses not directly a result of climate change, but warming lets them spread further

Front 98

Fisheries:
Cod- how are they effected?
Lobsters
Oysters

Back 98

Cod: water temp, habitat restricted to colder pockets
Lobster: affected by oxygen levels, warm water holds less oxygen
Oysters: deadly parasite moving northward (this conveyor belt may be slowing by 25% already)

Front 99

Bottom up changes in the Arctic:

Back 99

increased shrub growth present threat to caribou, shrubs crowd out lichens, and deep snow that gets stuck in the shrubs makes it hard for caribou to reach lichens below

Front 100

Agricultural Impacts of global warming:

Back 100

1. increased carbon dioxide levels (increased growth for some plants, not for others)
2. reduced ag productivity in regions

delta t= 2-3 C nearly everywhere at delta t avg> 3C

Front 101

WHO estimated premature deaths/year in 2000 because of climate change, what was this number?

Back 101

150,000

Front 102

What are our three options when facing dangers of global warming?

Back 102

1. Mitigation; measures to reduce pace and magnitude of changes in global climate being caused by human activities
2. Adaptation; measures to reduce the adverse impacts on human well-being resulting from changes in climate that do occur
3. Suffering; the adverse impacts that can't be avoided by mitigation or adaptation

Front 103

Extinction is a fact of life: all species become extinct eventually; how many have?

Back 103

99% are now extinct, current accelerating loss of habitat, 2000 of the world's 8600 species of bird could go extinct

Front 104

Homosapiens caused these animals to go extinct by hunting:

Back 104

mega fauna

Front 105

The majority of recent extinctions have occurred in the past _____. 2/3 of the vertebrate species could perish by the end of the century.

Back 105

150 years

Front 106

Why are islands so vulnerable? I mean, the majority of the extinctions have happened on islands, 85 species of mammals and 60% of those lived on islands

Back 106

1. Evolved in the absence of predators
2. Humans introduced competitors, diseases
3. Island population usually small which increases their risk for extinction

Front 107

Endemic Species:

Back 107

-species naturally found in only one geographic area and no place else, occupy restricted ranges
ex. Komodo dragon lives in indonesia, silversword lives in one volcano crater in Hawaii

Front 108

Hotspots:

Back 108

areas where species have high endemism and are disappearing at a rapid rate. Red signs are hotspots.

Front 109

By protecting 1.4% of the worlds land surface, we protect ...

Back 109

44% of world's vascular plants, 35% of terrestrial vertebrates

Front 110

Why are species going extinct in hotspots?

Back 110

1. high rates of habitat destruction for agriculture, housing, economic development
(70% of original area of hotspots disappeared)

Front 111

Why care about loss of biodiversity?

Back 111

-direct economic value of products we obtain from species:food and drugs
-indirect economic value of benefits produced by species without our consuming them
-ethical and aesthetic values

Front 112

What is the direct economic value that is necessary for our survival?

Back 112

- food crop genetic variation
-40% of drugs have active ingredients from plants (aspirin and cancer fighting drugs)

Front 113

Rosy Periwinkle:

Back 113

vinvlastine and vincristine effectively treat common forms of leukemia, increase survival from 20%-95%

Front 114

Indirect economic value derived from ecosystem services: the value of biodiversity

Back 114

1. maintains chemical quality of natural water, buffer against storm and droughts
2. prevent loss of minerals and nutrients
3. moderate local and regional climate
4. absorb pollution
5. promote breakdown of organic wastes and cycling of minerals

Front 115

New York City watershed:

Back 115

90% of 9 million people's water comes from Catskill Mountian and Delaware River

Dilemma: protect functioning ecosystem (cheaper) or construct filtration plants

Front 116

What are the negative effects of a degraded ecosystem?

Back 116

1. increased flooding and pollution
2. decreased rainfall
3. vulnerability to hurricanes

Front 117

Why is everyone not all for valuing the biodiversity in an ecosystem?

Back 117

1. do not have a good estimate of monetary value of benefits provided by ecosystems
2. people who gain the benefits of environmental degradation (BP) are not the same people that pay the costs (fishermen)

Front 118

Causes of extinction: (8)

Back 118

1. overexploitation
2. habitat loss
3. introduced species
4. disruption of ecosystem interactions
5. pollution
6. loss of genetic variation
7. catastrophic disturbances
8. unknown causes

Front 119

Why worry about amphibian declines?

Back 119

-many species have declines in pristine, well-protected environments because of their moist skin
-chemicals pass through
-larval habitats are aquatic
-may be sensitive to new disease

Front 120

Examples of Habitat loss:

Back 120

1. clear-but harvesting of timber
2. burning of tropical forests
3. urban and industrial development
ten fold increased in habitat area: double number of species
area reduced by 90%- half the species will be lost

Front 121

Explain habitat loss in madagascar:

Back 121

-rain forest covering the eastern coast of Madagascar, 90% habitat loss, many extinctions, 16 of 31 species threatened or extinct

Front 122

Explain extinction and Island Area Pollution:

Back 122

-aquatic environments particularly vulnerable, many lakes "sterilized" by acid rain, disruption- visitors to bat cave: four visits per month caused 90% declines in population size

Front 123

Habitat fragmentation:

Back 123

dividing the habitat up into small, unconnected areas; effects:
-lower overall population numbers
-smaller population in each fragment
-edge effects

Front 124

Edge effects: by product of fragmentation

Back 124

changes in microclimate along the edge of a habitat

Front 125

Edge effects:

Back 125

1. understory of a forest exposed to more sunlight
2. microclimate change (hotter and drier- more parasites)
3. less protection from predators
4. invasion by weed species

Front 126

Habitat fragmentation: Wisconsin woodland habitat (<1%): Explain experiment of habitat patch size and species extinction

Back 126

-landowners in brazil preserved patches of forest in different size to examine extinction
- extinction rate was negatively related to patch size
even the larges patches (100 hectares) lost half bird species in less than 15 years

Front 127

Migrant songbird declines:

Back 127

-year round residents prosper
-migrant songbirds decline because winter habitats are destroyed, rock creek park in DC lost 90% in the past 20 years

Front 128

Whale exploitation: 2 reasons

Back 128

1. overfishing
2. IWC regulates commercial whale hunting...to late

Front 129

introduced species threaten native species and habitats:

Back 129

-colonization brings together species with no history of interaction
-ecological interactions may be strong b/c species have not evolved ways of adjusting to presence of one another

result:
increase species diversity
extinction of species

(endemic island are very susceptible)

Front 130

Human influence on colonization:

Back 130

-plants and animals transported on ballast of large ocean vessels

Front 131

Efforts to combat introduced species:

Back 131

-eradicating extremely difficult, expensive and time consuming, prevent introduction is better

Front 132

Case Study: Lake Victoria cichilids

300 species of fishes
nile perch introduced
now many extinct, endangered, threatened

How did extinction occur:

Back 132

eutrophication, algal bloom, cichilid population increased, oxygen levels dropped, nile perch populations increased, nile perch ate many cichlids, introduction of water hyacinth compounded the problem

Front 133

small populations are vulnerable to extinction:

Back 133

-demographic factors
-ill-equipted to withstand catastrophes
-lack of genetic variation

Front 134

Things to do to protect the ecosystem:

Back 134

1. link pristine areas
2. increase population size
3. allow recolonization due to catastrophe
4. protection to species that move over great distances during the course of a year

Front 135

Biodiversity measured at what levels?

Back 135

1. Genetic diversity (total genetic information within all individuals of a species, freq of alleles present)
2. Species diversity (number and relative frequency of a species in a region)
3. Ecosystem diversity (variety of a biotic communities in a region, with abiotic factors too)
4. Taxonomic diversity (evolutionary relationship among species present in a region, some lineages species rich, some only one single living species)

DYNAMIC

Front 136

# of species alive today:

Back 136

1.5 cataloged to date

Front 137

Taxon-specific surveys:

Back 137

estimates number of insect species living in the canopy of a single tropical tree

Front 138

All-taxa surveys:

Back 138

catalog all species in a large area, great smoky mountains national park

Front 139

Biodiversity is highest in tropics and declines toward poles. What causes these gradients?

Back 139

1. evolutionary history (organisms have a history in a n area where they are adapted to the climate, greater time allows greater speciation, dispersal)
2. continental drift (position of continents changing over geologic time)
3. climat changes (influence geography of evolution, changes routs of dispersal via separation and joining)

Front 140

Wallace:

Back 140

major zoogeographic regions reflect long-term evolutionary isolation

Front 141

Theory of island biogeography:

Back 141

1. extinction depends on area of the island
2. immigration depends on remoteness of island (distance from continental source area)

# species= balance of immigration on a regional scale vs. extinction on a local scale

4. islands closer to mainland support more species because of higher immigration rates

5. larger islands support more species because of lower extinction rates

Front 142

Island Biogeography theory prediction that there should be evidence of an equilibrium in species number. Explain Krakatoa:

Back 142

natural experiment: fauna incineration by volcano, then the species got back into eq.

Front 143

Each species is non-recurring. Extinctions clear out living space for the surviving or new organisms. This refilling creates....

Back 143

variety of life

Front 144

Background extinctions occur at a moderate rate. Mass extinctions fast but ....

Back 144

relatively uncommon.

Front 145

Human-caused extinction: (5)

Back 145

1. excessive predation (food, fur, collecting, pest eradication)
2. habitat destruction
3. destruction of keystone species
4. introduction of exotic species (competitors, predators, diseases)
5. pollution and contamination

Front 146

What are the four main points in community ecology?

Back 146

1. energy pyramids
2. food chains & food webs
3. succession
4. island biogeography

Front 147

Tell about food chains:

Back 147

1. communities show identifiable patterns of predation among species called food chains
2. food chains are "schematic diagrams" of what eats what
3. food chains start with primary producers (autotrophs) that fix energy (usually by photosynthesis
4. eaten by heterotroph consumers
5. can be multiple trophic levels as one set of heterotrophs is eaten by another set

Front 148

What are the trophic levels?

Back 148

level 1: primary producers
level 2: herbivores
level 3: primary carnivore
level 4: secondary carnivore

...it's the job of an ecologist to see how energy is transferred between trophic levels

Front 149

Talk about primary production...

Back 149

-energy flow is up the pyramid
-ecology efficiency: ratio of the energy stored in a trophic level divided by the energy stored in the next lower trophic level
(only 10% transfer)

Front 150

Toxic chemicals flow up and are more concentrated at higher levels of food chains: what are some problematic toxins and talk about what they do?

Back 150

mercury, dioxin, PCB and DDT. Toxic chemicals in fish, methylmercury is a potent neurotoxin that effects nervous system and brain development. PCBs affect the mental and physical development of children and cause cancer, safe fish (little fat where toxins are stored) are flounder, haddock, Pacific halibut, ocean perch, pollock and sole.

Front 151

What is the grasshopper effect?

Back 151

-high levels of toxic pollutants (mercury) transported to arctic by winds from temperate power plants and industries
-seals are top predators and have concentrated mercury, problem for inuit who get 60% protein from seals

Front 152

Top down; Bottom up:

Back 152

Top down: this effect means that the top of the food chain (predators) sets the size of populations lower down the chain- ex, predators regulate prey population sizes. Bottom up: the bottom of the food chain sets the size of populations higher up; each trophic level derives energy from level below, if productivity of species on lower layer increases then larger populations are supported further up the chain

Front 153

Example of top-down:

Back 153

-removal of predators at Kiabab NF increased deer herds
-introduction of gypsy moths and opntia cactus without predators lead to uncontrolled growth
-top-down in northern pacific: killer whales switched from seals to sea otters, number of sea otters have gone down, sea otters eat sea urchins and their lower numbers have caused and increase in urchin populations, sea urchins dislodge kelp holdfasts of species that form large kelp forests where many marine species live

Front 154

Examples of bottom-up:

Back 154

-Farmers increase nutrients (fertilize) soil for larger crops that can feed more cattle, nutrients (P) added to lakes increase primary productivity and increase populations at higher trophic levels

Front 155

Succession:

Back 155

temporal changes in species composition associated with colonizing an empty habitat...seral stages occupy site through out time, when open space is cleared, opportunistic pioneer species colonize it, more permanent communities may develop until a mature climax stage takes over

Front 156

Lake Michigan Succession:

Back 156

- succession at Indiana Dunes is only example, one mile from beginning of primary succession at beach to climax forest, nearer to lake are more recent, provide a historical record of succession

Front 157

Three things that characterize later successional stages:

Back 157

1. greater tree size
2. Greater tree density and biomass
3. Greater forest litter
4. Soil moisture C and N increase , soil (ph, Mg, Ca and K decrease with dune age)

Front 158

Characteristics of plants early vs. late:

Back 158

seed number: early many, late few

dispersal: early wind, late gravity and animals

growth rate: early fast, late slow

Front 159

Changes associated with succession:

Back 159

1. species composition of the community changes from pioneer to climax
2. diversity increases, at least initially
3. biomass increases and the proportions of large organisms increase-self thinning
4. decrease in primary production relative to respiration P>>R to P=R
5. Switch in life histories from r to K

the characteristics of the climax depend on physical conditions such as climate, topography and soils

Front 160

Effect of disturbance on the climax:

Back 160

it allows other species opportunities, increase species diversity (much like keystone predator effects)

Front 161

Transient or disclimax situations:

Back 161

a. fire
b. grazing in grasslands (keystone)
c. tree falls
d. intertidal wave action (storms and predation)
e. freezing in seasonal ponds
f. hurricanes and coral reefs
g. logging

Front 162

Explain competition:

Back 162

-individuals often must compete with individuals within a between species to survive and reproduce
-individuals (and species) that do not attempt to capture scarce necessary resources go extinct
-selection favored individuals that evolve to withstand well under competition

Front 163

What is intraspecific competition (for food, mates) is:

Back 163

between members of the same species, this type of competition can be indicated by sensity and dependent reductions in fitness, the strongest competition in intraspecific and between similar species

Front 164

Interspecific competition:

Back 164

-/- interactions between members of different species,

Front 165

Types of competition:

Back 165

scramble: individuals compete by removing resources
indirectly: no direct contact
interference: direct interaction

they can obtain resources with out eating them, directly with physical barriers or they can be subtle by disturbance of prey, toxic chemicals

Front 166

Tell me about scramble:

Back 166

-particularly strong for plants: all share same limiting resources
-in homo environment with single limiting nutrient, one species will outcompete all others, its the one that can survive on lowest resource level

Front 167

allelopathy:

Back 167

chemical interference, it's a competitive mechanism, common in sponges, bacteria and fungi

Front 168

What is a niche:

Back 168

the range of resources and conditions that a species uses... interspecies competition occurs when the niches of two species overlap

Front 169

What is Gause's Competitive Exclusion Principle?

Back 169

two species cannot coexist indefinitely on the same limiting resource in the same niche

Front 170

Niche multidimensionality:

Back 170

many aspects define the niche (temp, salinity, pH) and these are sufficiently different among species to allow coexistence

Front 171

How can species coexist?

Back 171

1. niche multidimensionality
2. spacial and temporal heterogeneity among species
3. disturbance

Front 172

Spacial and Temporal heterogeneity among species:

Back 172

not really coexisting in the same space and time

Front 173

Disturbance:

Back 173

reduces competition and populations are kept below K- one species is not dominant under all conditions (density)

Front 174

Fundamental Niche:

Back 174

Species niche in the absence of competition- the conditions under which it can survive and reproduce

Front 175

Realized Niche:

Back 175

species niche in the presence of competition

if a niche enlarges when another species is kept out then there is evidence for competition

Front 176

Connell's Barnacle Experiment:

Back 176

Observations: balanus and chthamalus larvae overlap, adult ranges have little overlap with chthamalus higher on rocks, also chthamalus resist desiccation better.

Experiment: He removed barnacle Balanus that lives on rocks in lower the intertidal zone

Result: Chthamalus thrived where Balanus didn't survive
-Balanus crowded out Chthamalus in lower inertial zone where larvae settled together

Front 177

Realized vs. Fundamental Niche experiment:

Back 177

Red-back vole prefers woods. Meadow vole prefers grasslands.
Both were put in an enclosure that has woods and meadows, red backed vole occupied forest and meadow in grassland, in absence of meadow vole, red backed went onto grassland too, without red-backed, the meadow vole stayed in forest

so.... fundamental niche of meadow vole is only grassland and is same as realized niche

the fundamental niche of red-backed vole is forest and grassland, but in presence of meadow vole, it's realized niche is forest, competition strains out distribution

Front 178

Why are there so many plankton if they all use the same resources?

Back 178

1. vertical gradient of light
2. turbulence
3. differential predation
4. highly variable environmental condition

Front 179

Mechanism of co-existence:

Back 179

fitness trade offs, environment is always changing, superior competitors may not always be good at enduring drought, warding off disease and preventing predation, it allows inferior to co-exist

Front 180

T or F Predator caused disturbance can enhance species coexistence, Predation can influence the outcome of competition

Back 180

True

Front 181

Keystone predator:

Back 181

predator species that causes disturbance allowing more species to coexist

Front 182

Evolutionary consequences of competition: mechanisms of coexistence: niche differentiation

Back 182

-b/c competition is -/- there is a selection to avoid it
-predicts strong evolutionary changes that require niche overlap and competition
-leads to niche differentiation or resource partitioning
-change of species traits is called character displacement

Front 183

Outcomes of interspecific competition / intraspecific competition:

Back 183

-inter:narrows niche breadth, intro widens niche breadth

Front 184

Tell me about Character Displacement as an evolutionary effect of competition:

Back 184

-species shows greater differences where they are sympatric than allopatric
-in sympatric the competition drives the character displacment
-in allopatry, without interspecific competition, they evolve to use available resources most efficiently and they may be very similar

Front 185

Example of Character Displacement:

Back 185

islands with multiple finch species have character displacement, when it occurs along a resource gradient, it's called resource partitioning, each is one segment of the resource spectrum

Front 186

Ecological consequences of competition:

Back 186

1. coexistence with reduction in abundance/survival and fecundity
2. ecological exclusion
3. habitat partitioning (warbler species forage in different parts of trees)

Front 187

Evolutionary consequences of competition:

Back 187

1. greater morphological differences between species when together (character displacement)
2. evolution of traits that enhance competitive ability (allelopathy)
3. ghost of past competition- current lack of interaction as result of past competition leading to resource partitioning

Front 188

Mutualisms were long thought to be oddities, but Dan Janzen argued that they are widespread and important; talk about mutualism of termites:

Back 188

termite-fungus symbiosis; endosymbiont symbiosis, they can't actually digest wood, they must have either microbial gut endosybionts or and exosymbiont in the form of fungus

ex. leaf cutter ants- symbiosis between ant and fungus- animal agriculture, they make gardens by growing fungus on leaves they cut and collect (major herbivore 10-15% consumption) -major source of leaf recycling as well

Front 189

Leaf cutter ant mutualism:

Back 189

1. ants carry fungus to new nests
2. each ant species (210) has own strain of fungus
3. ants provide for needs of their fungus and the fungus feeds them
4. an additional mutualism: ants, fungus, bacteria that makes antibiotics that controls mold

Front 190

Ant-Acacia symbiosis- predator defense: explain

Back 190

symbiotic ants protect the Acacia plants from herbivores and prune away competing plants, the plants have special adaptation to allow ants to live on them

Front 191

How do Pseudomyrmex ants have special behaviors that make them valuable to bullthorn acacias?

Back 191

1. patrol leaves that remove insect eggs or caterpillars
2. bite intruders
3. trim back vines and other plants to provide more light for the acacia

-they function in place of alkaloids (chemicals in leaves) in these plants

Front 192

Pollination as Mutualism: flowering plants (angiosperm) are pollinated by animals, explain:

Back 192

1. plants get pollen transferred
2. animals get "reward"
3. angiosperm and pollinators have radiated b/c of the relationship

(except when a flowering plant is wind or water pollinated)

Front 193

What are the rewards for the pollinator?

Back 193

nectar: fluid produced by nectaries in flower are sugar
many have amino acids too
oils/resins: used as construction materials or "cologne" to attract females,
food for larvae

Front 194

What are the rewards of a pollination mutualism for the plant?

Back 194

1. direct dispersal of pollen via animals, gets it pollen delivered from stamen to stigma with less waste
2. style of flower as "selective racetrack" --fittest and fastest pollen grains mate selecting against less fit genes/pollen
3. over-pollination on stigma allows enhanced competition among pollen grains and higher fitness offspring

Front 195

What is a coadaptation?

Back 195

-figs produce scents that are specific to a particular pollinator species
-shape of ostiole specific to head shape of particular wasp species (lock-key)

FIGS and POLLINATOR WASPS show a high degree of COSPECIATION

Front 196

How do parasites hurt the mutualism in figs and pollinator waps?

Back 196

-ovipositing in flowers that would be seed or wasp producers
-predating pollinator wasps in some species

Front 197

Nitrogen fixing bacteria: what role does it play?

Back 197

1. in symbiotic relationship with legumes: peas, peanuts, beans, alfalfa, fixed nitrogen is often a limiting resource for plants
2. legumes restore nitrogen to soil after one may be done growing nitrogen depleting
crops
3. may make n-fixing bacteria by making ammonia using nitrogenase in anaerobic environment of rood nodules that house bacteria, if enzyme can't work efficiently in presence of dissolved O2, but bacteria still need oxygen for their respiration, get O2 through hemoglobin bacteria carry gene ??what?

Front 198

What is predation?

Back 198

+/- interaction between species, one uses another for food, here the prey species usually doesn't survive the interaction

stabilization is a PURE side effect of the actions of individuals in other species pursuing self interest

Front 199

parasitism:
herbivory:

Back 199

-the prey is larger than the predator and is not always killed
-the plant is prey and survives often

Front 200

T or F Experiments have supported the hypothesis that predators play a role in the density-dependent growth of prey populations. Species interactions have a strong impact on the evolution of predator and prey populations

Back 200

True!

Front 201

Kaibab deer story:

Back 201

-lots of deer
-removed natural predators of deer
-deer went near starvation

Front 202

Dingos and Red Kangas:

Back 202

-dingo fence allowed increase in red kangas
-prey switching allowed dingos to survive
-gave kangas enemy free space

Front 203

What are some examples of introduced predators to control pest species?

Back 203

(biological control agents)

ladybug beetle to control aphids

wasps to capture and lay eggs in butterfly and moth larvae

Front 204

What did they do in Australia to try to control the fly problem?

Back 204

cork hat, introduced dung burying beetles that make dung unavailable to flies, but invasive cane toads sat near dung and ate beneficial beetles, but that killed toads!

Front 205

True or False: Predator population tracks prey population with a time delay, further south prey swapping is more possible

Back 205

True

Front 206

What are the anti-predator adaptations?

Back 206

1. escape detection: camouflage
2. static defenses: weapons, shells, spines
3. deception: aggressive, batsian and mullerian mimicry
4. flight: running/flight, startles

Front 207

Talk about plant defense:

Back 207

-presence of chemical protecton in plants- toxins and physical devices that reduce palatability- silica granules and thorns
-willow tree's increase chemical defensive compounds when preyed on
-use alkaloids

Front 208

Chemical defenses as anti-predator adaptations:

Back 208

squested componds from prey species cantharidin in blister beetles, aristolochic acid in popevine caterpillars, formic acid in ants, monarch in milkweed

Front 209

Aposematic coloration:

Back 209

warning colors associated with other chemical defenses

Front 210

Batesian mimicry:

Back 210

harmless species mimics a harmful one; success depends on frequency of the harmful one

Front 211

Mullerian mimicry:

Back 211

two harmless resemble eachother

Front 212

Inducible defenses:

Back 212

-defenses produced only when prey are threatened: mussel shells thicken when crabs are present, daphnia develop spined morphs in response to the predator chaoborus chemical cues

Front 213

Other anti-predator behaviors:

Back 213

-alarm calls- warn relatives, ground squirrels babblers
-stodding- signes of health, der
-i see you calls - don't chase me because you cant sneak up (birds)
-cicada swarms (13-17 years to swamp bird predators)
-mast crops: oak trees have big years and this allows some seed to escape predators

Front 214

dN/dt=rN

Back 214

describe population growth where r is intrinsic growth, t is time and N is the population size, its the exponential growth model that is appropriate for describing the initial phases of population growth in an empty habitat

Front 215

positive feedback:

Back 215

process that does not show limits that are common to all populations

Front 216

dN/dt=rN(1-N/K)

Back 216

mathematical model for logistic population growth, N is population size, r is growth rate and K is carrying capacity, when N is small, (1-N/K) =1 so growth rate is exponential, but as N approaches K, the term (1-N/K) = 0, this makes the growth rate go to 0

Front 217

Logistic growth model: assumptions of logistic growth

Back 217

-constant environment
-constant carrying capacity (K)
- homogeneous population
-not characters the human population exhibit

-issue is that population growth models treat all individuals the same in their effect on population growth, but this is unrealistic, survivorship curve should be taken into account

Front 218

survivorship curve:

Back 218

-births and deaths depend on the age of individuals in the population
-show the survival patterns of individuals in a cohort born at the same time
-in type 1: most deaths occur in old age (should reproduce at a higher rate b/c more reach reproductive age)

(per capita death rate are density dependent- higher at high density)
-in type 3: more deaths occur in young

Front 219

Malthus:

Back 219

1. human population grow geometrically, resources available grow arithmetically
2. if unchecked populations will outgrow food supply

Front 220

US population:

Back 220

311,164,000

Front 221

World population:

Back 221

6,912,000,000

Front 222

cause of rapid increase in growth?

Back 222

reduced death rate due to major technical/scientific advances

Front 223

Explain Easter Island:

Back 223

stoneheads, moai, was a tropical forest, polynesian people arrived populations soared and reached 20,000, exceeded the capacity of the island, so forest was cut down and nothing left, then it crashed

Front 224

Big issues for third world countries:

Back 224

1. family size
2. poverty and disease
3. mass unemployment

Front 225

Exponential population growth:

Back 225

Nt=N0e^rt - the solution for the differential equation for exponential growth, tells us population size a time t in future

Front 226

ecology:

Back 226

-two categories of environmental factors, organismal and autecology- behavioral, physiological and morphological ways individuals interact with environment

Front 227

population ecology:

Back 227

a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time
-population size and composition
-demography
-life history

Front 228

community ecology:

Back 228

all the organisms of all the species that inhabit a particular area at the same time
-interactions between populations:
-predation
-competition
-disease
-mutualism

Front 229

What causes the differential heating of the earth's surface?

Back 229

solar radiation varies with latitude by season because of the earth's tilt (west->east)

Front 230

Hadley cells: (3 in each hemisphere)

Back 230

-cause global air circulation patterns
-affect moisture levels at different latitudes
-since earth is on a sphere, and the poles are stationary, the speed of spinning causes the circulation called the Coriolis force

Front 231

Ocean currents created by>>>>>>

Back 231

coriolis force and wind pattern

Front 232

Why are the Galapagos and Peru dry?

Back 232

west-blowing trade winds push warm water west, as it's moved from east to west, deep cold waters near SA are drawn up , cool water inhibits evap and then there are no clouds/rain

Front 233

How do mountains effect climate? (clue: west coast ranges moist air comes from west)

Back 233

-air mass force up windward side, as rises, cools, warm air holds more water so precip will occur
-air mass will descend dry on the other side, so other side will have warm dry air

Front 234

In northern hemisphere ____ facing slopes are warmer and drier than ____ facing slopes, difft communities live on each side.

Back 234

south, north

Front 235

how does microclimate effect things?

Back 235

forest surface temp is affected by amount of shading, lizards change the amount of time they spend in the sun in order to regulate their body temperatures

Front 236

Species

Back 236

two groups of organisms are species if they can not interbreed and produce fertile offspring, they are independent evolutionary units meaning they evolve independently and do not exchange genes

Front 237

Allopatric/ Geographic speciation:

Back 237

-depends on separation as cause of genetic isolation
model 1: incariance physical barriers arise and separat
model 2: dispersal isolation when they move across new barriers

(allopatric speciation: contact after separation)

Front 238

So two things could happen when the separate allopatric speciation happens:

Back 238

1. unable to breed-clear cut speciation
2. still able to breed- introgression (highly viable hybrid and merge back into one)
-reinforcement- reduced hybrid fertility causes selection for prereproductive isolation
-hybrid zones: maintained indefinitely or dynamic

Front 239

What keeps sympatric species from interbreeding?

Back 239

-prezygotic or postzygotic barriers <- these are side effects of genetic differentiation in separated populations

Front 240

Prezygotic barriers: occurs before zygote formation- more economical

Back 240

-behavioral isolation (mating call)
-mechanical isolation (lock and key)
-gamete isolation
-temporal isolation (difft, breeding seasons)
-sperm elimination (female reject)

Front 241

Sympatric speciation:

Back 241

-polyploidization (duplication of chromosomes sets, more commonly asexual<- better on own though, more resistant and fruitful)
-allochronic speciation
-microallopatic (host shift, driving chromosome) (<----if they are highly faithful to their host, there may be effective isolation
-parthenogenesis

Front 242

sympatric speciation in the tree-spined stickleback:

Back 242

hyothesis 1: sympatric speciation in each lake caused by disruptive selection, favoring fist with extreme mouth size)

hypothesis 2: physical separation in lake allows for formation of separate species (microallopatric seciation)

Front 243

Fossils of organisms like ____ and Basilosaurus represent the missing links- unknown in Darwins time but predicted by ______________

Back 243

Lucy, evolutionary theory

Front 244

The endosymbiont hypothesis is supported by the fact that:

Back 244

cholorplasts and mitochondrial ribosomes are 70s and have circular DNA, like bacteria

Front 245

Natural Selection is necessary to create:

Back 245

complex adaptations

Front 246

Mutations produce variation which is necessary for ______________ to operate.

Back 246

natural selection_

Front 247

________ of the monarch butterfly by the viceroy shows that natural selection can produce very precise adaptations.

Back 247

Mimicry

Front 248

Since __________evolve very slowly, it is best used for estimating the timing of ancient divergences.

Back 248

ribosomal genes

Front 249

Mutations of _________effect can be more detrimental

Back 249

larger

Front 250

Morphological changes found in snail fossils with the appearance of crab species suggest ________ of these organisms.

Back 250

co-evolution

Front 251

Mass extinctions are associated with sudden changes in the kinds of ________ in ______ rock strata.

Back 251

fossils, adjacent

Front 252

_____________evolve in formerly coding sequences that are now not expressed.

Back 252

pseudogenes

Front 253

Natural selection always requires ____________ variation.

Back 253

phenotypic

Front 254

Natural selection can occur with out ___________ but there will be no evolution.

Back 254

heritability

Front 255

the fact that old adaptations can be used as stepping stone for new adaptations makes....

Back 255

complex adaptations more likely

Front 256

Darwin relied on comparative tests and experimental tests of hypothesis when he argued for the occurrence of evolution t or f

Back 256

True

Front 257

Darwin used pigeon breeds to indicate that a large amount of _________ had occurred since breeders started selecting these breeds.

Back 257

evolution

Front 258

The presence of missing links and intermediates in the ________________ provide important evidence for evolution.

Back 258

fossil record

Front 259

The ______ world hypothesis is more plausible than a ______ based system because it requires fewer evolutionary steps to evolve.

Back 259

RNA > DNA

Front 260

Some _____ can catalyze steps in their own replication.

Back 260

RNA

Front 261

Viruses show ______________ even though the info they carry is in the form of short strands of genetic material.

Back 261

adaptive behaviors

Front 262

The ______________states that viruses and other organisms that are better reproducers are those most represnted in future generations.

Back 262

selfish gene hypothesis

Front 263

Since the divergence from chimps, the lineage leading to humans has been associated with many other species that have gone extinct. T or F

Back 263

True

Front 264

_________ is a genetic change in a population over time.

Back 264

Evolution

Front 265

Complex traits with clear functional design are called__________.

Back 265

adaptations

Front 266

The earth is ________ years old

Back 266

4.5 billion

Front 267

Life on earth is ________ years old.

Back 267

3.5-3.8 billion

Front 268

_________ gain energy they require from other organisms.

Back 268

Heterotrophs

Front 269

Invagination of the _______, linearization and multiplication of ______ and _________ capture were important in the evolution of eukaryotes form prokaryotes.

Back 269

cell membrane, chromosomes, organelle/bacteria

Front 270

Human fetuses have vestigial ____ and ________.

Back 270

tail and gill slits

Front 271

___________genes code for developmental patten along the main axis of most animals.

Back 271

homeobox

Front 272

Same evolutionary origin:

Back 272

homology

Front 273

radioactive dating

Back 273

constant decay

Front 274

molecular clock

Back 274

relatively constant substitution rate

Front 275

mutation

Back 275

genetic variation

Front 276

fewest evolutionary changes

Back 276

parsimony

Front 277

circular chromosomes

Back 277

mitochondria

Front 278

recapitulate

Back 278

replay

Front 279

early dino. discovery

Back 279

iguanodon

Front 280

3 examples of vestigial organs: why important?

Back 280

1. whale pelvis, whale class II olfactory genes, boid (snake) pelvis girdle and limbs
2. tail and gill slits in human embryo

they show that the organism with them had an ancestor that had these traits in more fully developed ways

Front 281

Why was artificial selection important? Two examples

Back 281

- it was a model for how natural selection could work if done by environment instead of breeder
- shows evolution by selection process
-model for how selection could lead to adaptive radiation of species

Front 282

Name the three types of selection and how it effects the mean and variance:

Back 282

directional: moves mean but not variance
stabilizing: does not move mean, narrows variance
disruptive: increases variance causing two morphs, overall mean not required change

Front 283

Potassium -> Argon

Back 283

3:5 = 1.5 half lives

Front 284

Explain "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"

Back 284

it mean "development replays evolution" while there is some evidence to support this, it's not a complete record of evolutionary history

Front 285

Name three essential ingredients for evolution by Natural Selection. Name 2 other assumptions by darwin:

Back 285

1. Phenotypic variation
2. Heritability
3. Differential Reproduction of Pheno and Genotypes

-old earth
-malthusian overproduction

Front 286

Explain scientific method:

Back 286

-scientific hypothesis need to be supported by facts, validity of facts should not change whether they are collected before or after an event, we can not test hypotheses about events that have already occurred

Front 287

Explain what the distribution of homeobox genes in different animal groups tells us about their evolution. How are homeobox genes in vertebrates different from those in other organisms?

Back 287

Homeobox genes are highly conserved and there are four copies. They arose from gene duplication.

Front 288

There is no direct evidence of how _________________ on earth.

Back 288

direct evidence

Front 289

The fact that meterorites contain numerous amino acids suggests that these types of molecules may have __________

Back 289

existed on earth before life ocurred

Front 290

The fact that viruses choose to act ______ or ________ shows that they act adaptively.

Back 290

lytic, lysogenic

Front 291

The earth contains more bacteria (in # and mass) than all other organisms combined. T or F

Back 291

True

Front 292

_____________ show greater diversity in habitat and metabolisms than ___________________

Back 292

prokaryotes, eukaryotes

Front 293

The earliest fossil cells are how old?

Back 293

3.5x10^9 years old

Front 294

potassium-argon dating is based on a ____________

Back 294

constant decay

Front 295

the fossil record fills in gaps in the _________

Back 295

theory of evolution

Front 296

Noncoding regions show more change and phylogenies from noncoding regions should also accurately predict _______

Back 296

phylogenetic relationships

Front 297

Prebiotic molecules can no longer assemble on earth today because of....

Back 297

our atmosphere

Front 298

Miller-Urey experiment:

Back 298

environment that mimics earths original temperature and within hours they made organic compounds

Front 299

DNA is too slow and unlikely to replicate on it's own, it was most likely...

Back 299

RNA

Front 300

lytic:
lysogenic::

Back 300

lytic: reproduces then breaks host
lysogenic: DNA inserted into host chromosome

Front 301

All organisms have similar mitochondria systems but the cholorplats diversity may suggest...

Back 301

that there was multiple changes

Front 302

Synonymous mutations accrue more ______ than non-synonymous mutations because non-synonymous changes in DNA can strongly affect individual fitness and are more often removed by selection

Back 302

quickly

Front 303

______zygotic barriers are more costly (in terms of producing low fitness hybrid) than _______.

Back 303

post, prezygotic

Front 304

Sexual selection can lead to __________. Differences in female mating preferences can occur in sympatry or allopatry.

Back 304

speciation

Front 305

Offspring sometimes have siblicide when food is scarce. In honey bees and hyenas:

Back 305

first emerging queen kills all others, daughters of dominant female kill twin sister

Front 306

Hamilton's equations says so indirect over direct if the equation is met. True or False?

Back 306

True

Front 307

Mitochondria and Cholorplast are ________ inherited.

Back 307

uniparentally

Front 308

____ organisms are better able to adapt to varying environments than _______ organisms

Back 308

sexual, asexual

Front 309

______species tend to persist longer than _____ species

Back 309

sexual, asexual

Front 310

_____fitness increases more than _______fitness with repeated matings with different partners

Back 310

male, female

Front 311

Cuckoldry often has been recorded in monogamous species so females can :

Back 311

get genes of higher genetic quality

Front 312

How do offspring attempt to control the parent?

Back 312

1. weaning conflict
2. birds loud begging
3. temper tantrums
4. regression

Front 313

Regression is a way that ______ dominate their ________ when there is a conflict.

Back 313

offspring, parents

Front 314

Mutation accumulation hypothesis:

Back 314

selection is less efficient in removing deleterious mutations occurring late in life and senescence occurs as these mutations accumulate

Front 315

antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis:

Back 315

genes have different effects over time, traits expressed early in life have a greater effect than traits late in life

Front 316

Pathogens with greater vertical transmission are predicted to have ______ virulence

Back 316

lower

Front 317

Less iron=

Back 317

more resistant to disease

Front 318

______________may lead to sympatric speciation.

Back 318

polyploidization

Front 319

_______________ radiated due to model II geographic speciation

Back 319

Darwin's finches

Front 320

There can be no evolved ____________ for the good of the species.

Back 320

self-sacrifice

Front 321

Traits may evolve that benefit the ___________ but not the __________

Back 321

individual, species

Front 322

Selection at lower levels is more powerful because there is a greater__________________

Back 322

phenotypic variation

Front 323

Sperm precedence where the last male fertilized most of the female's eggs favors the evolution of _________________ by males after ______________

Back 323

mate guarding, copulation

Front 324

Kin selection is an improvement on the _______________ model for predicting behavior.

Back 324

individual selection

Front 325

What predicts the residence patterns in preindustrial human groups?

Back 325

overall level of male confidence

Front 326

Suppressors of selfish driving genes allow the individual to produce ________________________ in gametes.

Back 326

Mendelian ratios

Front 327

Tell me about lemmings:

Back 327

it's a contrast between individual and group altruism. Lemmings are suggested to run off cliffs.

Front 328

Senescence is part of a beneficial trait that has evolved because it enhances reproduction. True or False

Back 328

True

Front 329

What are two things that can decrease the 2 for 1 cost of sex?

Back 329

1. facultative sexuality
2. male parental care

Front 330

Homo sapiens followed Homo erectus about how many years ago?

Back 330

100-200000 years ago

Front 331

Gamete dimorphism:

Back 331

this is why sexual strategies are different between males and females, because eggs are costly and expensive they are hunted more

Front 332

Bateman's rule is violated because in some instances, females court males rather than vice versa. True or False

Back 332

True

Front 333

In ungulates, sexual dimorphism is related to ______

Back 333

harem size

Front 334

Many dad's=
One dad=
(in regards to offspring conflict)

Back 334

more offspring conflict
less conflict

Front 335

Why do fish and amphibians males give more care than females?

Back 335

when their confidence of paternity nears that of the womans

Front 336

If you take vasopressin from voles and put it in rats:

Back 336

rats will have parental care

Front 337

avunculocal:

Back 337

fathers commonly may be more related to their sister's sons than to their own

Front 338

What are three things that create sexual variation:

Back 338

1. segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis 1
2. fusion of unrelated gametes
3. crossing over

Front 339

Sex has it's advantage because:

Back 339

it produces it's extremely high fitness offspring

Front 340

Why is selection at higher levels less effective than at the individual and gene level?

Back 340

groups and species are created and die relatively slowly relative to individuals

Front 341

Why have we evolved to prefer high fat foods?

Back 341

foods were scarce and were beneficial to our ancestors to eat

Front 342

What's the issue with HRT?

Back 342

physicians assumed that the body of post-menopausal women could not produce estrogen when it would otherwise be beneficial to do so

Front 343

______ selection involves male-male competition and female choice

Back 343

sexual

Front 344

The Hominid lineage diverged from a common ancestor with _____ about 5-7 mya.

Back 344

Chimps

Front 345

In humans, ag appeared _______ ya.

Back 345

10-12 thousand

Front 346

___________ speciation may involve polyploidy or allochronic timing of reproduction

Back 346

sympatric

Front 347

___________ hermaphrodites can change sex

Back 347

sequential

Front 348

males in species with _________ fertilization are less likely to give parental care

Back 348

internal

Front 349

transmission of diseased by vectors, such as mosquitoes, can select for high __________, b/c human host doesn't need to be mobile

Back 349

virulence

Front 350

_______ has 612 cc brain volume, was the firs tool user but couldn't speak.

Back 350

Homo habilis

Front 351

________ are the only eusocial vertebrates

Back 351

naked mole rats

Front 352

_________young birds are able to feed themselves soon after hatching

Back 352

precocial

Front 353

_________ hermaphrodites are females first

Back 353

protogynous

Front 354

___________ are one ancient and large group of asexual eukaryotes

Back 354

bdelloid rotifers

Front 355

Most vertebrate asexuals have ______ or ________ associated with their genetic system and origin

Back 355

polyploidy, hybridization

Front 356

________ freed the hands of human ancestors for making tools, carrying weapons, and carrying babies

Back 356

bipedality

Front 357

Primate

Back 357

rotating forarms

Front 358

eusociality

Back 358

no direct reproduction by castes

Front 359

anisogamy

Back 359

sexual dimorphism

Front 360

allopatric model 1

Back 360

barrier separates population

Front 361

migratory locust

Back 361

two morphs

Front 362

benefit of sex

Back 362

mutation free chromosomes

Front 363

allopatric model II

Back 363

island radiations

Front 364

iteroparity

Back 364

many reproductive bouts

Front 365

holometabolous

Back 365

wormlike, don't look like adults

Front 366

matrilocal

Back 366

mother's brother importatnt

Front 367

What are pre and post zygotic barriers to gene flow and how are they important to speciation?

Back 367

if hybrids are of reduced viability, then pre zygotic barriers may evolve to prevent females from producing low fitness offspring (reinforcement)

Front 368

Why is the inability to interbreed a better definition of a species than a definition based on genetic difference?

Back 368

It shows whether or not there is gene flow, without gene flow they are separate evolutionary units and will diverge over time. Genetic distance can's measure this.

Front 369

What is Hamiltons kin selection?

Back 369

b/c= 1/r b= benifit to recipient c=cost to doner r- relatedness through identity by descentif met, do indirect

Front 370

Why is kin selection a more successful genetic reproductive strategy than individual level selection alone

Back 370

-offers two options for reproduction and often indirect is more effective

Front 371

How are differences in gamete size related to evolution of sexual dimorphisms?

Back 371

eggs are scarce so males must compete for them. selection on males to develop traits that aid in this competition

Front 372

Explain how changing environmental conditions reversed courtship patterns in Australian katydids

Back 372

males provided females wiht spermatophores when mating in dry conditions they were scarce so females courted males. in wet, males courted females

Front 373

Compare r and K

Back 373

r: early age of reproduction, no parental care, many small eggs

K: late age of reproduction, parental care, few larger eggs

R species are under-populated habitats and these traits aid

Front 374

Why might parents have different interests from offspring and how may this lead to conflict?

Back 374

Parents interested on overall reproductive success where kids are only in their own, parents may give less milk then they desire to have.

Front 375

Volcanic islands are poor environments to investigate biogeography because they are too small an area. True or False

Back 375

false

Front 376

Evolution can occur on different time scales and _____________ is most important for producing adaptations

Back 376

microevolution

Front 377

Vestigial organs are reduced versions of functional organs that were present in ancestors and that do not have any function in their current state. T or F

Back 377

false

Front 378

Variation in a trait is required for it to have inheritance but is not required for heritability T or F

Back 378

false

Front 379

Examples of artificial selection were important because they provided Darwin with empirical evidence for evolution

Back 379

true

Front 380

The phrase, "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" means that:

Back 380

the history of an organism is is replayed in its development

Front 381

___________ in class II olfactory receptors are common in whales because purifying selection is not effective in removing disruptive mutations from these genes

Back 381

pseudogenes

Front 382

There are many processes, one being natural selection that can lead to...

Back 382

evolution

Front 383

Stabilizing selection can be identified because it shifts>>

Back 383

the variance of the pop

Front 384

Mimicry by monarch butterfly

Back 384

example of precise fit due to Natural Selection

Front 385

Phylogenies created from molecular data match those created from fossil data. True or False

Back 385

True

Front 386

When they used the Drosophila version on a homeobox gene to fix the one in the mouse that showed what?

Back 386

these genes are conserved across highly divergent animal taxa

Front 387

No direct evidence of how life originated on earth.

Back 387

True! minus my bible

Front 388

What points to the possibility that amino acids may have existed before life on earth?

Back 388

amino acids on meteors

Front 389

It's likely that ___ was important for the origin of life since ___ can catalyze steps in it's own replication.

Back 389

RNA

Front 390

The earth contains more bacteria (in number and mass) than all other organisms combined. T or F

Back 390

True

Front 391

_______ show greater diversity in habitat and metabolisms than __________

Back 391

pro, eukarytes

Front 392

_____ has a lower mutation rate and a higher genome than ____

Back 392

DNA, RNA

Front 393

How does a bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics?

Back 393

Methods of the antibiotic:
1. block cell wall formation
2. block protein synthesis

How reist:
-alternative synthesis
-alter ribosome structure
-decrease antibiotic permeability
-pump out antibiotic
-inactivate antibiotics

Front 394

Endosymbiont hypothesis:

Back 394

-involves circular bacteria

Front 395

The blending hypothesis is refuted by the _______________

Back 395

reappearance of recessive phenotype

Front 396

_______ allows for the production of novel types of chromosome

Back 396

Crossing over

Front 397

________ are not expressed in the F1 generation in crosses between dominant and recessive pure-bred lines

Back 397

recessive traits

Front 398

________of the __________ allow the individual to produce Mendelian ratios in gametes

Back 398

supresors of the selfish driving gene

Front 399

Natural selection is strongest as the ______ level because variation is ______ there

Back 399

lowest, more

Front 400

___________ often but not always occurs when breeding territories for young individuals are scarce.

Back 400

cooperative breeding

Front 401

___selected traits include early first age of reproduction and short life span

Back 401

R

Front 402

Live bearing female lizards may retain their eggs inside them when predation for adults is ___ and high for ___

Back 402

low, eggs

Front 403

Some ______ insects give up direct reproduction all together.

Back 403

eusocial

Front 404

_________birds are reliant on parents to provide them for food when young

Back 404

altricial

Front 405

Sex determination in developing crocodiles in nests is an example of ____________

Back 405

phenotypic plasticity

Front 406

According to _________ the decline in physical performance with age is a part of life history pattern that enhances reproduction

Back 406

antagonistic pleiotropy

Front 407

Helping behavior is not expected when direct reproduction consistently has _______ than indirect

Back 407

higher

Front 408

Sequential hermaphrodites typically change sex when:

Back 408

they would have a higher reproductive success if they changed

Front 409

The cost of sex may be associated with ___________ in species where males don't provide parental care.

Back 409

producing males

Front 410

The paradox of sex is that meiosis discards half the parental chromosomes which seems to defy the principal of __________________

Back 410

selfish genetic behavior

Front 411

Name three mechanisms for sexual variation:

Back 411

1. independent assortment of maternally and paternally derived chromosomes in meiosis
2. crossing over creates variation
3. fusion of genetic information of different individuals which combines information from different gamete (zygote)

Front 412

Male fitness _______ more than female fitness with multiple matings.

Back 412

increases

Front 413

___ eukaryotes are sexual

Back 413

Some

Front 414

What are the two main elements of sexual selection:

Back 414

1. female choice
2. male/male comflict

Front 415

Exponential and logistic population growth models take into consideration that females of different ages reproduce at different rates. True or False

Back 415

false

Front 416

Malthus argued that human populations are naturally limited by safeguards built into our genetic programming T or F

Back 416

false

Front 417

Has technology advanced our availability of natural resources?

Back 417

not really

Front 418

Predation evolves. What's the byproduct?

Back 418

stabilized prey populations

Front 419

When they removed the predators for the Kaibab deer what happened?

Back 419

they dead

Front 420

If population numbers increase above carrying K, the population will decrease until extinction t or f

Back 420

false

Front 421

Demographic transition:

Back 421

birth and death rate, birth rate is inverse of growth, death is along side

Front 422

One example of co-evolution:

Back 422

newt toxicity and garter snake resistance to this toxicity

Front 423

The first trophic level of a food chain are ________ primary producers.

Back 423

autotrophic

Front 424

Which level has the highest biomass?

Back 424

primary

Front 425

What type of organism has the best energy transfer between trophic levels?

Back 425

cold-blooded, insects

Front 426

Toxins are most concentrated where?

Back 426

high levels

Front 427

An increase in the sea otter population should lead to a large ______ in kelp forests

Back 427

decrease

Front 428

In succession, plants in later stages are better competitors than those in earlier for what?

Back 428

light and space

Front 429

What and where alters concentration of soil?

Back 429

Lupin on Mt. St. Helens

Front 430

Succession on dunes of Lake Michigan show a long term _______ of sunlight reaching the ground and an _______ in the soil nitrogen

Back 430

decrease, increase

Front 431

_______ in the Hawaiian islands are both pioneer and climax species

Back 431

Ohia trees

Front 432

Male care of offspring occurs only when there is external fertilization. T or F

Back 432

False

Front 433

Does natural selection affect Humans phenotype?

Back 433

abbbsolutly

Front 434

Humans are classified as the _______ and the only living _______.

Back 434

great ape, hominid

Front 435

Genes affecting male tendency to give parental care are known from studies of _____

Back 435

voles

Front 436

Parent-offspring conflict is not expected because their high level of relatedness. True or False

Back 436

False

Front 437

Difference between realized niche and fundamental niche of one species may be due to ---------- from another.

Back 437

competition

Front 438

Character displacement is most common in the area where two species are __________.

Back 438

allopatric

Front 439

Character displacement is most common in the area where two species are ....

Back 439

sympatric

Front 440

Darwins finches have ____ beaks when they co-occur and _____ beaks when they are on different islands.

Back 440

different. similar

Front 441

Chemical interference used by plants mostly:

Back 441

allelopathy

Front 442

Just cause there is an overlap in two species along a resource gradient does that mean there was never competition between the two?

Back 442

nope

Front 443

Talk about leaf cutter ants and fungus?

Back 443

fungus feeds ants, ants provide for needs of fungus

Front 444

What do termites have in their gut that helps them digest wood?

Back 444

endosymbiont (creatures in one other) symbiosis!

Front 445

FIg wasp's lay eggs on figs and larva eats and pollinated the figs. Males are only suited for....

Back 445

boring hole and mating (o wings)

Front 446

This type of mutualism involves only two species:

Back 446

obligate

Front 447

What is the most likely cause of extinction on megafauna in NA?

Back 447

humans hunting

Front 448

Endemic species:

Back 448

live in small population size and survive in limited area nd are susceptive to extinction

Front 449

Mangroves and wetland are important because:

Back 449

they serve as hatcheries adn breeding sites for fish and other aquatic organisms

Front 450

Clean air act:

Back 450

success

Front 451

There is an equatorial-polar gradient that is in terrestrial system and in

Back 451

oceans

Front 452

Island biogeography theory predicts that extinction rate increase due to:

Back 452

competition as the number of species on an island increases

Front 453

The equilibrium number of species on an island occurs when:

Back 453

colonization rates match extinction rates

Front 454

High rainfall increases _______ population regulation and thus increases species diversity.

Back 454

top down