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253 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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cellular respiration
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the complex process in which cells make ATP by breaking down organic compounds
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pyruvic acid
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3-carbon molecules that organic compounds are made into during glycolysis
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NADH
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an electron carrier molecule
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anaerobic
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a process in glycolysis that does not require the presence of oxygen
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aerobic respiration
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requires oxygen to be present, pyruvic acid is broken down and NADH is used to make a large amount of ATP through this
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glycolysis
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a biochemical pathway in which one 6-carbon molecule of glucose is oxidized to produce two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid
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NAD+
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nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
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fermentation
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the combination of glycolysis and additional pathways, which regenerate NAD+
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lactic acid fermentation
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an enzyme converts pyruvic acid made during glycolysis into another 3-carbon compound
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alcoholic fermentation
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some plant cells and unicellular organisms, such as yeast, use this process to convert pyruvic acid into ethyl alcohol
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kilocalories
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the form that energy is measured in
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mitochondrial matrix
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the space inside the inner membrane of a mitochondrion
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acetyl CoA
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when pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrial matrix, it reacts with a molecule called coenzyme to form this
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krebs cycle
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a biochemical pathway that breaks down acetyl CoA, producing Co2, hydrogen atoms, and ATP
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oxaloacetic acid
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in the first step of the krebs cycle, a 2-carbon molecule of acetyl CoA combines with THIS 4-carbon compound to produce a 6-carbon compound
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citric acid
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in the first step of the krebs cycle, a 2-carbon molecule of CoA combines a 4-carbon compound (oxaloacetic acid) to produce THIS 6-carbon compound
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FAD
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flavin adenine dinucleotide; a molecule very similar to NAD+; accepts electrons during redox reactions
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chromosome
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rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins
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histones
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help maintain the shape of the chromsome and aid in the tight packing of DNA; the DNA in eukaryotic cells wraps tightly around THESE proteins
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chromatid
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a half of the chromosome; form as the DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division
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centromere
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the point where the two chromatids are attached
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chromatin
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the less tightly coiled DNA protein complex is called THIS
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sex chromosomes
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chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism
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autosomes
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all other chromosomes in an organism
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homologous chromosomes
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the two copies of each autosome that the organism receives from a parent
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karyotype
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a photomicrograph of the chromosomes in a normal dividing cell found in a human
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diploid
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have two autosomes for each homologus pair
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haploid
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contain only 1 set of autosomes for each homolgous pair
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binary fission
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the division of a prokaryotic cell into two offspring cells
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mitosis
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a form of cell division that results in new cells with genetic material that is identical to the genetic material of the orignal cell
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asexual reproduction
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the production of offspring from one parent
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meiosis
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occurs during the formation of gametes; reduces the chromosome number by half in new cells
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gametes
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haploid reproductive cells
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interphase
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the time between cell divisions
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cytokinesis
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the division of the cell's cytoplasm
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prophase
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the 1st phase of mitosis; begins with the shortening and tight coiling of DNA into rod-shaped chromsomes that can be seen with a light microscope
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spindle fibers
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made of microtubules radiate from the centrosomes in preparation for metaphase
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metaphase
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the 2nd phase of mitosis; chromosomes are easier to identify, the kinetochore fibers move the chromosomes to the center of the dividing cell
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anaphase
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the 3rd phase of mitosis; the chromatids are each chromosome separate at the centromere, and slowly move toward opposite poles of the dividng cell
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telophase
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the 4th phase of mitosis; afte rthe chromosomes reach opposite ends of the cell, the spindle fibers disassemble, and the chromosomes return to a less tightly coiled chromatin state; a nuclea envelope forms around each set of chromosomes, and nucleolus forms in each of the newly forming cells
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cell plate
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in plant cells, vsicles from the golgi apparatus join together at the midline of the dividing cell to form THIS; a cell wall eventually forms from THIS at the midline, dividing the cell into 2 new cells
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synapsis
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the paring of homologus chromosomes, which does not occur in mitosis is called THIS
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tetrad
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each pari of homolgous chromosomes is called THIS
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crossing-over
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a process where portions of chromatids may brake off and attach to adjacent chromatids on the homolgous chromosome
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genetic recombination
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results from crossing-over because it permits the exchange of genetic material between maternal and paternal chromosomes
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independent assortment
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the random separation of the homologous chromosomes
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spermatogensis
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the production of sperm cells
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oogenesis
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the production of mature egg cells, or ova
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polar bodies
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the other three products of meiosis that eventually degenerate
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genetics
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the field of biology devoted to understanding how characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring
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heredity
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the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring
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trait
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a genetically determined variant of a characteristic (ex: a yellow flower)
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pollination
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occurs when pollen grains produced in the male reproductive parts of a flower, called the anthers, are transferred to the female reproductive part of the flower, called the stigmata
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self-pollination
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occurs when pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of either that flower or another flower on the same plant
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cross-pollination
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occurs between flowers of two plants
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true-breeding
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plants that are THIS, or pure, for a trait always produce offspring with that trait when the self-pollinate
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p-generation
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the true-breeding plants
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f1 generation
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the offspring of the p-generation
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f2 generation
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the offspring from the f1 generation
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dominant
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masks or dominates, the factor of another trait in the pair
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recessive
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the trait that did not appear in the f1 generation but reappeared in the f2 generation was controlled by THIS factor
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law of segregation
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states that a pair of factors is segregated during the formation of gametes
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law of independent assortment
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states that factors separate independently of one another during the formation of gametes
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molecular genetics
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the study of the structure and function of chromosomes and genes
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allele
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each of two or more alternative forms of a gene
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genotype
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an organism's genetic make up
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phenotype
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an organism's appearance
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homozygous
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when both alleles of a pair are alike, the organism is said to be THIS for that characteristic
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probability
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the likelihood that a specific event will occur
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monohybrid cross
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a cross in which only one characteristic is tracked
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punnett square
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a chart that biologists use to aid them in predicting the probable distribution of inherited traits in the offspring
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genotypic ratio
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the ratio of the genotypes that appear in the offspring
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phenotypic ratio
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the ratio of the offspring's phenotypes
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testcross
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the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype
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complete dominance
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a relationship when one allele is completely dominant over another
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incomplete dominance
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a relationship when the f1 offspring will have a phenotype in between that of the parents
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codominance
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occurs when both alleles for a gene are expressed in a heterozygous offspring
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dihybrid cross
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a cross in which two characteristics are tracked
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virulent
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disease-causing
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transformation
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the transfer of genetic material in the form of DNA fragments from one cell to another or from one organism to another
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bacteriophage
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viruses that infect bacteria
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nucleotide
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consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, & a nitrogenous base
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deoxyribose
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the 5-carbon sugar in a nucelotide
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nitrogenous base
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contains nitrogen (N) atoms, and carbon (C) atoms, and is a base (accepts hydrogen ions
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purines
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nitrogenous bases that have a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms, such as adenine and guanine
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pyrimidines
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nitrogenous bases that have a single ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms, such as cytosine and thymine
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base-pairing rules
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in DNA, cytosine on one strand pairs with guanine on the opposite strand, and adenine pairs with thymine
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complementary base pairs
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cytosine goes with guanine and adenine goes with thymine
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base sequence
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the order of nitrogenous bases on a chain of DNA
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DNA replication
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the process by which DNA is copied in a cell before a cell divides by mitosis
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helicases
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enzymes that separate the DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the complementary nitrogenous bases
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replication fork
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the Y-shaped region that results when the two strands separate
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DNA polymerases
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enzymes that add complementary nucleotides, found floating freely inside the nucleus, to each of the original strands
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semi-conservative replication
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in each new DNA double helix, one strand is from the original molecule, and one strand is new; this type of replication is called THIS because each of the new DNA molecules has kept (or conserved) one of the two (or semi) original DNA strands
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mutation
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a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA molecule
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RNA
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ribonucleic acid; a natural polymer that is present in all living cells and that plays a role in protein synthesis
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transcription
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DNA acts as a template for the syntehsis of RNA
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translation
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RNA directs the assembly of proteins
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protein synthesis
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forming proteins based on information in DNA and carried out by RNA
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ribose
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a 5-carbon sugar present in RNA
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messenger RNA (mRNA)
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a single-stranded RNA molecule that carries the instructions from a gene to make a protein
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ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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part of the structure of ribsomes
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transfer RNA (tRNA)
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which transfers amino acids to the ribosome to make a protein
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promoter
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a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA where RNA polymerase binds and initiates transcription
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termination signal
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a specific sequence of nucleotides that marks the end of a gene
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genetic code
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the term of the rules that relate how a sequence of nitrogenous bases in nucleotides corresponds to a particular amino acid
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condon
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each 3-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that encodes an amino acid or signifies a start or stop signal
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anticondon
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three nucleotides on the RNA that are complimentary to the sequence of a condon in mRNA
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genome
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the entire gene sequence of a human
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sex-linked trait
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refers to a trait that is coded for by an allele on a sex chromosome
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linked genes
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pairs of genes that tend to be inherited together
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chromosome map
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a diagram that shows the linear order of genes on a chromosome
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map unit
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a frequency of crossing-over of 1%
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germ-cell mutations
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occur in an organism's gametes
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somatic-cell mutations
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take place in an organism's body cells and can therefore affect the organism
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lethal mutations
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cause death, often before birth
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deletion
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the loss of a piece of chromosome due to breakage
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inversion
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a chromosomal segment breaks off, flips around backward, and reattaches
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translocation
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a piece of one chromosome breaks off and reattaches to a nonhomolgous chromosome
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nondisjunction
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a chromosome fails to separate from its homologue during meiosis
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point mutation
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the change that occurs within a single gene or other segment of DNA on a chromosome
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substitution
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one nucleotide replaces another
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frameshift mutation
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the loss of one or more nucleotides in a gene that can cause incorrect grouping of the remaining condons and makes all amino acids downstream change
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insertion mutations
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one or more nucleotides are added to a gene, which can also result in a frameshift mutation
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pedigree
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a diagram that shows how a trait is inherited over several generations
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carrier
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individuals such as the four people in the fifth generation in the pedigree; have one copy of the recessive allele but do not have the disease
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genetic disorders
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disease or disabling conditions that have a genetic basis
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polygenic
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characteristics that are influenced by several genes
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complex characters
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characters that are influenced strongly by both the environment and by genes
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multiple alleles
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genes with three or more alleles
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sex-influenced traits
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involved in other complex characters
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Huntington's disease
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an autosomal dominant condition characterized by forgetfulness and irritability
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amniocentesis
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allows a physician to remove some amniotic fluid from the amnion, the sac that surrounds the fetus, between the 14th and 16th week of pregnancy
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chorionic villi sampling
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the physician takes a sample of the chorionic villi- cells derived from the zygote that grow between the mother's uterus and the placenta- between the 8th and 10th week
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genetic counseling
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the process of informing a person or couple about their genetic makeup
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gene therapy
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a technique that places a healthy copy of a gene into the cell of a person whose copy of the gene is defective
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evolution
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the development of new types of organisms from preexisting types of organisms over time
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strata
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rock layers
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natural selection
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descent with modification
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adaptation
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a trait that makes an individual successful in its environment such as thick fur in the cold
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fitness
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a measure of an individual's hereditary contribution to the next generation
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fossil
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the remains of traces of an organism that died long ago
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superposition
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states that if the rock strata at a location have not been disturbed, the lowest stratum was formed before the strata above it
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relative age
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its age compared to that of other fossils
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absolute age
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the time since formation
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biogeography
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the study of the locations of organisms around the world
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homologous structures
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anatomical structures that occur in different species and that originated by heredity from a structure in the most recent common ancestor of the species
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analogous structures
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have closely related functions but do not derive from the same ancestral structure
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vestigial structures
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seem to serve no function but resemble structures with functional roles in related organisms
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phylogeny
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the relationships by ancestry among groups of organisms
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convergent evolution
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the process by which different species evolve similar traits
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divergent evolution
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a process in which the descendants of a single ancestor diversify into species that each fit different parts of the environment
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adaptive radiation
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the pattern of divergence
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artificial selection
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the process when a human breeder chooses individuals that will parent the next generation
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coevolution
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when two or more species have evolved adaptations to each other's influence
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biodiversity
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the variety of organisms considered at all levels from populations to ecosystems
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taxonomy
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the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms
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taxon
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any particular group within a taxonomic system
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kingdom
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largest category in the hierarchy of organization; made of animals and plants
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domains
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categories above the kingdo level
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phyla
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subsets below the kingdom level
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classes
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each phylum contains THIS
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order
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each class contains THIS
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family and genus
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smaller groupings (after orders)
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species
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contains only a single kind of organism
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binomial nomenclature
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the system of two-part names
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subspecies
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variations of a species that live in different geographic areas
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systematics
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the goal is to classify organisms in terms of their natural relationships
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phylogenetics
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the analysis of the evolutionary or ancestral relationships among taxa
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phylogenetic diagram
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a diagram where systematsits often represent their hypothesis
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cladistics
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a system of phylogenetic analysis that uses shared and derived characters as the only criteria for grouping taxa
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shared character
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a feature that all members of a group have in common, such as hair in mammals or feathers in birds
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derived character
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a feature that evolved only within the group under consideration, for example, feathers are thought to be a derived character for birds
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clade
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the group of organisms that include an ancestor plus all of its descendants
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cladograms
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a diagram that is based on patterns of shared, derived traits and that shows the evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms
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bacteria
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made up of small, single-celled prokaryotic organisms that usually have a cell wall and reproduce by cellular fission
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archaea
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have distinctive cell membranes and other unique biochemical and genetic properties
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eukarya
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consists of eukaryotic organisms; cells are large and have a true nucleus and complex cellular organelles; includes plants, animals, fungi, and a variety of single-celled organisms
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eubacteria
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aligns with the domain bacteria
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archaeabacteria
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aligns with the domain archaea
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protista
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a kingdom of eukaryotes; members of this kingdom are called protists; has been defined as those eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi
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fungi
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a kingdom of eukaryotes; consists of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that are unicellular or multicellular and that gain nutrients in a unique way
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plantae
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a kingdom of eukaryotes; consists of eukaryotic, multicellular plants
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animalia
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a kingdom of eukaryotes; consists of animals, eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic organisms that develop from embryos
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animal
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multicellular heterotrophic organisms that lack cell walls
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vertebrates
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animals that have a backbone
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invertebrates
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animals that don't have a backbone
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specialization
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the evolutionary adaptation of a cell for a particular function
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ingestion
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an animal takes in organic material or food, usually in the form of other living things
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zygote
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the diploid cell that results from the fusion of the gametes, then undergoes repeated mitotic divisions
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differentiation
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cells become specialized and therefore different from each other
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chordate
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animals with a firm flexible rod of tissue located in the dorsal part of the body
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pharyngeal pouches
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small outpockets of the anterior digestive tract
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symmetry
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a body arrangement in which parts that lie on opposite sides of an axis are identical
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radial symmetry
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a body plan in which the parts are organized in a circle around an axis
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dorsal
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back
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ventral
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abdomen
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anterior
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toward the head
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posterior
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toward the butt
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bilateral symmetry
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animals that have two similar halves on either side of a central plane are said to display THIS
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cephalization
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the concentration of sensory and brain structures in the anterior end of the animal
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germ layers
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tissue layers in the embryos of all animals except sponges, which have no tissues
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segmentation
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refers to a body composed of a series of repeating similar units
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exoskeleton
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a rigid outer covering that protects the soft tissues of many animals, like crabs
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gills
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organs that consist of blood vessels surrounded by a membrane and are specialized for gas exchange in water
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open circulatory system
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circulatory fluid is pumped by the heart through vessels
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closed circulatory system
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blood is pumped by a heart and circulates through the body in vessels that form a closed loop
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hermaphrodite
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an organism that produces both male and female gametes, allowing a single individual to function as both a male and female
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larva
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a free-living, immature form of an organism that is morphologically different from the adult
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vertebrae
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the repeating bony units of the backbone
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endoskeleton
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an internal skeleton made of bone and cartilage, which includes the backbone
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integument
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the outer covering of an animal
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lungs
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organs for gas exchange composed of moist, membranous surfaces deep inside the animal's body
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kidneys
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in most vertebrates, THESE organs filter waste from the blood while regulating water levels in the body
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entomology
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the study of insects and other terrestrial anthropods
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labrum & labrium; mandibles & maxillae
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mouthparts that function like upper and lower lips
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tympanum
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a sound-sensing organ; a large, oval membrane that covers an air-filled cavity on each side of the first abdominal segment
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metamorphosis
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developmental change in form
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incomplete metamorphosis
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a nymph hatches from an egg and gradually develops into an adult
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nymph
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an immature form of an insect that looks somewhat like the adult
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complete metamorphosis
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an insect undergoes two stages of development between the egg and the adult
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pupa
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also called a chrysalis; a stage of development in which an insect changes from a larva to an adult
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pheromone
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a chemical released by an animal that affects the behavior or development of other members of the same species through the sense of smell or taste
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social insect
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what kind of insects live in colonies; individuals that gather food, protect the colony, and reproduce
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innate behavior
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genetically determined behavior
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worker bees
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nonreproductive females
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queen bee
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the only reproductive bee in the hive
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drones
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males that develop from unfertilized eggs
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royal jelly
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a high-protein substance that they feed to the queen and youngest larvae produced by the worker/nurse bees
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queen factor
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a pheromone that the queen bee makes that prevents other female larvae from developing into queens
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altruistic behavior
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when worker bees sting an intruder to defend the colony, they cause their own deaths; aiding of other individuals at one's own risk or expense
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kin selection
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the mechanism of propagating one's own genes by helping a closely related individual reproduce
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dinosaurs
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a group of extinct reptiles that dominated life on land for roughly 150 million years; evolved from thecondonts, an extinct group of crocodile-like reptiles
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amniotic eggs
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encase the embryo in a secure, self-contained aquatic environment; provide more protection for the developing embryo than do the jellylike eggs of amphibians
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amnion
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the thin membrane enclosing the fluid in which the embryo floats
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yolk sac
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encloses the yolk, a fat-rich food supply for the developing embryo
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keratin
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the same protein that forms your fingernails and hair
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septum
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a single ventricle partially divided by a wall of tissue
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alveoli
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the lining of the lungs may be foldd into numerous small sacs called THIS
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Jacobson's organ
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a specialized sense organ located in the roof of the mouth of reptiles
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thermoregulation
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the control of body temperature
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ectotherm
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warms its body by absorbing heat from its surroundings
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endotherms
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have a rapid metabolism, which generates heat needed to warm the body
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oviparity
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the female's reproductive tract encloses each in a tough protective shell
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ovoviviparity
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retains the eggs within the female's body for a time; the eggs may be laid shortly before hatching, or they may hatch within the female's body
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viviparity
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a shell does not form around the egg, and the young are retained within the female's body until they are mature enough to be born
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placenta
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a way that nutrients and oxygen are transferred from mother to embryo
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carapace
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the top or dorsal part of the shell on a turtle
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plastron
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the lower or ventral part of the shell on a turtle
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autotomy
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the ability that lizards have to detach their tails
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constrictors
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wrap their bodies around prey
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elapid
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snakes that inject poisons through two small, fixed fangs in the front of the mouth
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vipers
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inject venom through large, mobile fangs in front of the mouth
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