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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what were two basic ideas about inheritance that most ppl had before mendel?
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Direct transmission of traits and blending of traits
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Pangenisis
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aka direct transmission
Parents pass on representative samples of their own tissues to their Offspring |
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Blending of traits
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Tissue samples get mixed to produce characteristics of offspring
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true-breeding
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Offspring produced from self-fertilization would remain uniform from one generation to the next
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what plant did mendel do his experiments on?
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garden pea
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self-fertilization
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Gametes produce by the male and female parts of the same flower can fuse to form viable offspring
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cross-fertilization
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removing a flowers male parts before fertilization occurs, the introduce pollen froma different strain, performing a cross-pollination
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1st stage of mendel's experiment
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Studied true-breeding (plants that when self-crossing were unchanged from generation to generation)
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2nd stage of mendel's experiment
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Performed crosses between true-breeding varieties exhibiting alternative forms of traits. He performed reciprocal crosses:using pollen from a white-flowered plant to fertilize a white flowered plant, and vice versa
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3rd stage of mendel's experiment
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Permitted the hybrid offspring produced by these crosses to self-fertilize for several generations, allowing him to observe the inheritance of alternative forms of a trait.
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what were the results of mendel's experiments
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Hybrids (the F1 generation) always resembled one of the original parents
ie one form of the trait was dominant while the other was recessive Offspring of the hybrids (the F2 generation) were mixed more resembled the dominant parent and a few resembled the recessive parent. |
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from mendel's experiments, what can be concluded to not be true?
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Inheritance does not occur by direct transmission
The F2 plants did not all look like their F1¬ parents Parental traits do not blend in the bodies of their offspring The white flowers trait retained its integrity in the bodies of F1 hybrids |
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monohybrid cross
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cross that follows only two variations on a single trait
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first filial generation
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1 generation of offspring from parents
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second filial gneration
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the offspring of the f1
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what is the first element of mendel's model
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parents do no transmit physiological traits directly to their offspring. Rather, they transmit discrete information for traits called “factors” = gene
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what is the 2nd element of mendel's model
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each individual receives two genes that encode each trait.
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diploid
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2 copies each gene/2 sets of chromosomes
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what is the 3rd element of mendel's model
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3. not all copies of a gene are identical.
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alleles
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alternative forms of genes
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homozygous
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when two haploid gametes containing the same allele fuse during fertilization
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heterozygous
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when two haploid gametes contain different alleles
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fourth part of mendel's model
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the two alleles remain discrete—they neither blend with nor alter each other. Therefore, when the individual mature and produces it own gametes, the alleles segregate randomly into these gametes
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fifth part of mendel's model
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5. the presence of a particular allele does not ensure that the trait it encodes will be expressed. In heterozygous individuals, only one allele is expressed (the dominant one), and the other allele is present but unexpressed (the recessive one).
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genotype
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total set of alleles that an individual contains
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phenotype
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the physical appearance or other observable characteristics
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Principle of Segretation
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The two alleles for a gene segregate during gamete formation and are rejoined at random, on from each parent, during fertilization
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testcross
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An individual with an unknown genotype is crossed with the homozygous recessive genotype (recessive parent).
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DNA
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Deoxyribose nucleic acid
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Who first discovered DNA?
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Miescher in 1869
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nucleic acids function
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are the information-carrying devices of the cells
RNA or DNA |
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Nucleotide
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Long subunits that make up polymerized nucleic acids
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structure of a nucleotide
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5 carbon sugar and a phosphate and an organic nitrogenous base
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what bond holds nucleotides together
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phosphodiester bonds
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explain how the bonds between nucelotides are mad
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the phosphate group of one nucleotide will bind to the hydroxyl ground from the pentose sugar of another which will release water
dehydration reaction |
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structure of a nucleic acid
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a chain of five carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds with a nitrogenous base protruding from each sugar
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Explain 3' and 5'
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Refer to the ends of a nucleic acid
5’ is where the phosphate end is located 3’ is where the hydroxyl is located |
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purine
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double ring molecules
adenine and guanine |
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pyrimidines
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single ring molecules
cytosine and thymine |
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thymine is found in
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DNA only
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cytosine is foudn in
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RNA and DNA
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guanine is found in
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RNA and DNA
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adenine is found in
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RNA and DNA
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what are the DNA bases
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cytosine
guanine adenine thymine |
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proteins contain how many different amino acids?
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20
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why is the normal virulent strain of pnuemonia referred to as the S form
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it forms smooth colonies on a culture dish
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why is the nonvirulent stain of pnuemonia referred to as the R form?
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it forms rough colonies in a petri dish because it lacks the enzyme needed to manufacture the polysaccharide coat that the virulent strain has
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Describe Griffith's experiment
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A mouse was injected with a virulent strain of pneumonia --> mouse died
A mouse was injected with a nonvirulent strain of pneumonia --> mouse lived Griffeth then heated the virulent strain of pneumonia This lead to somehow killing the strain --> mouse lived Griffeth took the heat-killed virulent strain and the live nonvirulent strain of pneumonia into the mouse at the same time Result: mouse dies and after analysis there was presence of the virulent strain of pneumonia |
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what was griffith's explanation to his experimental results
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Griffeth said that the non-virulent strain had become transformed. Something by the heat-killed bacteria must have been taken up by the non-virulent strain to create a virulent strain.
Genetic engineering occurred of the nonvirulent strain transforming principle must have been a gene |
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Virulence is...
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Virulence is a genetic trait. They breed true
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what can be concluded from griffith's experiments?
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There must be something form the heat-killed pathogenic bacteria converted the harmless sraing into pathogenic oranisms
A transforming principle |
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explain the experiment of avery, macleod, and mccarty
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Other had worked out a simpler experimental system
Transformation occurs in vitro (take heat killed bacteria and mixed it with nonvirulent bacteria in a test tube to make it occur) Pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria look different growing -Purify different substances from the heat-killed pathogenic bacteria, and test for transformation. -Confirming the results: Transforming principle is destroyed by DNA-digesting enzymes -Conclusion: DNA, rather than protein, is the genetic material |
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Who were the 3 individuals that helped out w/ figuring out the secondary structure of DNA
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Chargaff
Franklin Watson and Crick |
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describe Miescher's work
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a swiss chemist that discovered DNA 4 years after Mendel's work
he extracted a white substance from the nuclei of human cells and fish sperm. after experimenting with it he discovered a new biological substance he called "nuclein" it ended up being nucleic acid |
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Chargaff's rules
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-the proportion of A always equal that of T and the proportion of G is always equal to that of C
-it follows there there is always an equal proportion of purines and pyrimidines |
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Adenine is always paired with
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thymine
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thymine is always paired with
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adenine
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Explain Franklin's contribution to the secondary structure of DNA
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She discovered that DNA was helical in shape through x ray diffraction
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What is the primary structure of DNA?
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amino acid sequence in the polymer chain)
-The primary structure is the nucleotide sequence -DNA is only an information molecule of genetic information |
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what is the conformation of DNA?
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Double Helix
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did watson and crick do experimental work
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no
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phosphodiester backbone
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the long polyers of nuleotides (a,g,t,c) joined by phosphodiester bonds
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guanine is always paired with
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cytosine
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cytosine is always paired with
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guanine
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Where is the sugar-phosphate backbone?
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on the outside of the helix
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Watson-Crick model
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explains the secondary structure of DNA
DNA is a helical model Right handed (stick thumb up and wrap around fingers) Two-stranded ie double helix Strands are antiparallel Bases are opposite each other |
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complimentary base pairing
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a to t
g to c If you know the sequence of one strand, you automatically know the sequence of the other Basis for DNA replication |
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where does energy for maintaining structure come from?
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Energy for maintaining its structure come from dispersion forces because it of its close stacking
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complementary (definition)
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although the stands are not identical, they each be be used to specify the other by base-pairing
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antiparallel
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strands of DNA are opposite in polarity
ie one strand will be 3' to 5' while the other will be 5' to 3' |
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what does replication require
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something to copy
something to do the copying building blocks to make the copy |
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what is the template for dna replication
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parental dna molecules
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what is the template for performing replication
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enzymes
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what is the building blocks that make the copy
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nucleotide triphosphates
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what are the four things that DNA must do to function as genetic material
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Store information
Direct cell functions Directs its own replication Be able to change |
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elaborate on information storage
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Genetic information is stored in the DNA nucleotide sequences
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Gene
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segment of a DNA molecule with a particular nucleotide sequence
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semiconservative replication
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one strand is old
one strand is the daughter strand that of the old that is replicated in DNA replication Moving from 3 to 5 end of template strand but the new strand moves from 5 to 3 end |
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DNA replication is catalyzed by what enzyme?
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DNA polymerase
what does it do? catalyzes the polymerization of nucleotides in DNA replication the enzymes "read" a DNA template strand and produce a complementary copy |
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how does dna polymerase function?
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they add new bases in the direction of 5' to 3'
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elaborate on directing cell functions
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Cell function require particular proteins
With particular amino acid sequences Directs protein folding into its correct conformation Protein amino acid sequences are determined by the nucleotide sequences of the genes that are codes for them |
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elaborate on directing its own replication (for DNA)
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Since DNA strands are complementary to each other, each strand can be used as a template for synthesizing its complement
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mutation
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change in dna
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how does a mutation work?
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If there is a change in the nucleotide sequence =new allele for that gene
This produces a change in the amino acid sequence This produces a change in the folding/conformation of the protein This change in folding gives it a change in fuction |
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natural theology
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evidence of the existence and attributes of "the diety" collected from the appearance of nature
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who coined the term natural theology?
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william paley in 1802
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what changed in the 19th century about how Europeans thinkers looked at the cosmos
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people began to see evolutionary change in characteristics of species
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what is natural selection
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differential reproduction--that some traits contribute to producing more offspring
if heritable these traits will become more common short: traits that are more favorable win |
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what is the outline of darwin's theory according to the lecture notes
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changes in species characteristics result from random variation acted upon by natural selection
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what are the theolgoical implication of darwin's ideas
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unlimited change undermines the concept of perfection in the machine paradign
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what is the limitation to Darwin's theory that Michael Behe describes?
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Behe argues that Darwin created his theory before cellular processes were understood (didn't understand complex cellular mechanisms) and he thought of them too simply
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irreducible complexity
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a single system composed of several well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning.
An irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly (that is, by continuously improving the initial function, which continues to work by the same mechanism) by slight, successive modifications of a precursor system, because any precursor to an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional. |
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what is an example of an irreducibly complex system
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the rhodopsin signal transduction
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what is behe's solution?
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intelligent design
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intelligent design
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assertion that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.
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Chromatin structure
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Wrapping DNA around histones
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Nucleosome
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Shorten length of DNA molecule by a factor of 10
They are made up of DNA and four pairs of proteins called histones, and resemble "beads on a string of DNA" when observed with an electron microscope. |
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central dogma of molecular biology
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process of turning gentoype to phenotype
DNA is transcribed to make mRNA which is translated to make a protein |
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transcription
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the process where DNA turns to mRNA
produces an exact copy of DNA |
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translation
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the RNA to protein step
requires translating from the nucleic acid to the protein "languages" |
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RNA is
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single stranded
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DNA is
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double stranded
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template strand
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the one strand of the DNA that is copied to make RNA
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coding strand
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the strand that is not copied to RNA from the DNA
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when the template strand is copied to mRNA is it exactly the same?
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no it is the complementary sequence
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what does RNA polymerase do
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allows transcription of DNA by unwinding DNA to make it available to be copid, and when it leaves DNA moves back into its conformaiton
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where does translation tkae place?
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on the ribosome
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mitosis
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cell division of eukaryotic chromosomes
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what is chromatin?
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a complex of DNA and protein that makes up chromosomes
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a chromosome contains how much dna?
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1 long double stranded fiber
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histones have what charge?
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positive because they have an abundance of amino acids arginine and lysine
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how do histone guide dna coiling
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the positive charged histone is strongly attracted to negatively charged DNA phosphate groups
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nucleosome
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the complex of dna and histone proteins
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condensin
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a complex of proteins that aid looping of solenoid about the proteins scaffold
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solenoid
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wrapping of necleosomes
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haploid
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n
one complete set of chromosomes necessary to define an organism |
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diploid
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twice the number of haploids
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dipolid chromosomes reflect...
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the equal genetic contribution that parents make to offspring
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homologous chromosomes
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the maternal and paternal chromosome
the individual strand of the chromosome |
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what is the difference between homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids?
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homologous chromosomes are the maternal and paternal copies of the same chromosome.
sister chromatids are the two replicas of a singe chromosome held together at their centromeres |
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cohesins
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complex of proteins that hold together the two identical strands of dna that make up the chromosome
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why are there two strands of the same dna in a chromosome?
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for replication to ensure that the daughter cell receives the same DNA
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G1 phase
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gap phase 1
primary growth phase of the cell gap phase refers to its filling the gap between cytokines and DNA synthesis |
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S phase
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stands for synthesis
phase in which the cell synthesizes a replica of the genome |
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G2 phase
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gap phase 2
second growth phase where preparations are made for separation of the newly replicated genome mitochondria and other organelles replicate, chromosomes prepare to condense, and microtubules begin to assemble |
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interphase
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the portion of the cell cycle between cell divisions
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M phase
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mitosis
sister chromatids begin being separated. |
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C phase
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cytokinesis
the phase of the cell where the cytoplasm divides creating two daughter cells |
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Karyokinesis
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-division of the nucleus (or of the replicated chromosomes)
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what is present in the eukaryotic cell cycle that isn't in bacteria cell cycle?
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microtubules
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teleomere
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a region of repetitive DNA at the end of chromosomes, which protects the end of the chromosome from destruction.
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G0 phase
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a resting state in the G1 has before DNA replication
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what is the difference between ribose and deoxyribose
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a ribose w/o an oxygen
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name nucelotide pyrmadines
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uracil
thymine cytosine |
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name nucleotide purines
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adenine
guanine |
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interphase encompasses what parts of the cell cycle
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g1 s g2
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Centromere-
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a point of constriction on the chromosome containing certain repeated DNA sequences that bind specific proteins
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kinetochore
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disk like center created by centromere on chromosomes
Functions as a site for microtubules to attached to and separate the chromosomes during cell division |
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What are the phases of mitosis?
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prophase
metaphase anaphase telophase |
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Prophase
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Condensing of the chromosomes continue to occur
Spindles (bridges of microtubules later used to separate chromatids) created Nuclear envelope breaks down |
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Metaphase
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Spindles connect to the condensed chromosomes by their kinetochores
Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell |
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Anaphase
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Centromeres split, freeing the two sister chromatids
Separated chromatids are pulled across the cell where their kinetochores are attached Poles begin to separate which elongates the cell |
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How do chromatids move across the cell in anaphase
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The tubulin subunits of microtubules are removed from the inetochore ends of the microtubules. Essentially the microtubules become disassembled.
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Telophase
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Spindle apparatus disassembles and tubulin subunits are used to construct cytoskeltons in daughter cells
Nuclear envelope is created to separate the sister chromatids Chromosomes uncoil-->available for gene expression |
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Cytokinesis
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Division of Cytoplasmic contents
Animal cells: belt of actin filaments pinch off daughter cells. |
