Biology Exam #1

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biology

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scientific study of life

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themes of biology

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reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, regulation, evolutionary adaptation, response

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hierarchy

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ordered set of items arranged in levels

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discovery basked science

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natural structures and processes. based on observations and analysis of data

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hypothesis based science

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observations led to questions

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quantitative data

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recorded measurements. tables or graphs

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qualitative data

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observations rather than data

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phylogeny

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evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

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systematics

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discipline classifying organisms and determines their relationships using fossil, molecular and genetic data

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taxonomics

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ordered division among naming organisms

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three domains

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Eukarya, bacteria, archaea

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five kingdoms

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animalia, plantae, fungi, protists, monera

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cladistics

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study of clades, groups by common descent

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binomial nomenclature

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2 part names for species (linnaeus)

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homology

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similarity due to shared ancestry

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analogy

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similarity due to convergent evolution

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convergent evolution

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occurs when environmental pressures cause evolution

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phylogenetic tree

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shows patterns of descent, but doesnt show when species evolved or how much changed occurred in a lineage

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branch point

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divergence of two species

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sister taxa

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groups shared immediate common ancestor

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polytomy

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branch from which two or more groups diverge

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charles darwin

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discovered that species showed evidence of "descent with modification" from common ancestors and natural selection is the mechanism behind descent with modification

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prokaryote characteristics

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-thrive almost everywhere

-most are microscopic

-break things down

-single celled organims

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coccus

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spherical shaped bacteria

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bacillus

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rod shaped bacteria

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spiral

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helical shaped bacteria

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bacteria cell wall

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protect cell and maintains cell shape

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bacteria capsule

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polysaccharide/protein layer, allows adhesion to other cells

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bacteria pili

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long hairs, allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA and move

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fimbrae

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hairs coming off cells smaller than pili, allow them to stick to substrates or other individuals in a colony

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gram-negative

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less peptidoglycan and outer membrane containing toxins. more likely to be antibiotic resistant. do not contain crystal violet stain

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gram-positive

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thick peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall outside the cell membrane, which retains the crystal violet stain during the alcohol wash

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peptidoglycan

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polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh like layer outside the plasma membrane of most bacteria, forming the cell wall

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taxis

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the ability to move toward or away from a certain stimuli

chemotaxis-response to chemical stimulus

phototaxis- organism moves toward or away from light

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parts of flagellum

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filament, hook, basal aparatus

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nucleoid region

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region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains most or all of genetic material, not surrounded by nuclear membrane

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plasmids

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small rings of DNA inside the nucleoid region

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binary fission

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the way prokaryotes reproduce(1-3 hours)

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transformation

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(binary fission)

uptake DNA from surroundings

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transduction

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(binary fission)

viruses carry genes from host to host

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photoautotrophs

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obtain energy from light

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chemoautotroph

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obtain energy from chemicals

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photoheterotroph

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obtain energy from light and receive carbon from organic compounds (aquatic and salt loving prokaryotes)

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chemoheterotroph

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obtain energy and carbon from organic compoinds

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obligate aerobes

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require O2 for cellular respiration

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obligate anaerobics

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poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or anaerobic respiration

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facultative anaerobics

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can survive with or without O2

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thermophiles

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archaea that live in environments with extreme teperatures

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halophiloes

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archaea that live in envrionments with high concentrations of salt

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methanogens

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archaea that live in swamps and marshes. produce methane as a waste product

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nitrogen fixation

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atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia

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symbiosis

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ecological relationship in 2 species which live in close contact

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mutualism

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both symbiont and host benefit

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commensalism

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one (host or symbiont) benefits, neither harming or helping the other

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parasitism

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harms but doesn't kill the host, can cause disease

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pathogens

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the parasites that cause diseases

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exotoxins

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causes disease even if prokaryotes that produce them are not present

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endotoxins

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released only when bacteria die and cell wall breaks down

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eukaryote characteristics

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-single cell organisms

-have nucleus and other membrane enclosed organelles

-well developed cytoskeleton

-found almost anywhere there is water

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endosymbiosis (in eukaryotic evolution)

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-mitochondria: evolved first by endosymbiosis of an aerobic prokaryote

-plastids: evolved by endosymbiosis of a photosyntheic cyanobacterium

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secondary endosymbiosis

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red and green algae were ingested in the food vacuoles of heterotrophic eukaryotes and became endosymbionts themselves

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ecological functions of protists

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parasites, symbionts, producers

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4 supergroups of protists

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excavata, SAR clade, archaeplasida, unikonta

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excavata

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cytoskeleton, feeding groove

-diplomonads

-parabasalids

-euflenozoans

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SAR clade

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may have originated from ancestral red algae endosymbiont

-stramenopiles

-alveolata

-rhizaria

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archaeplastida

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red and green algae

-red algae

-green algae

-chlorophytes

-charophytes

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unikonta

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2 clades: amoebosoans and opisthokonts (animals fungi and some protists)

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diplomonads

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(excavata)

mitosomes, equal sized nuclei, multiple flagella, anaerobic

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parabasalids

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(excavata)

hydrogenosomes ex. trichomonas vaginalis

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euflenozoans

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(excavata)

spiral/crystalline rod in flagella, diverse clade

-kinetopplastids

-euglenids

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kinetopplastids

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(euflenozoans, excavata)

large single mitochondrion contains DNA kinetoplast. example: trypanosoma

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Euglenids

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(euflenozoans, excavata)

1 or 2 flagella, have chloroplasts

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stramenopiles

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(SAR)

hairy and smooth flagellum

-diatoms,golden algae, brown algae, oomycetes

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diatoms

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unicellular algae,glass-like wall of hydrated silica, major components of phytoplankton

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golden algae

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yellow/brown carotenoids, photosynthetic, soome hetertotrophic

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brown algae

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largest most complex algae, multicellularm included "seaweed' species, structure of thallus: blade,stipe,holdfast

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oomycetes

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water molds, once considered fungi, decomposeres/parasites, hyphae

Example: phytophthoria infestans (potato blight)

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alveolata

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has membrane sacs (alveoli) under plasma membrane

-dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, ciliates

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rhizaria

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amoebas, thread like pseudopodia

-forams, radioarians

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dinoflagellates

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component of phytoplankton, cellulose plates reinforce, 2 flagella, cause "red tides"

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apicomplexans

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animal parasites, apex, apicoplast

example: plasmodium (causes malaria)

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ciliates

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use cilia to move/feed, macro- & micronuclei

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Forams

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multichambered shells (tests) pseudopodia extend through test

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radiolarians

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marine protists, test made of silica, phagocytize microorganisms, pseudopodia radiate from central body

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red algae

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phycoerythrin, largest are seaweeds, abundant in tropics

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green algae

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green chloroplasts, 2 groups

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chlorophytes

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freshwater and marine forms, sexual and asexual reproduction

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charophytes

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damp soils and snows, symbionts in lichens

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amoebozoans

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lobed or tube shaped pseudopodia

-slime molds-plasmodial & cellular