Biology Ecology On Adaptation And Species

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Directional Selection

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Favors an organism that is at a phenotypic extreme compared to the rest of the population

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Stabalizing Selection

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Eliminates individuals with extreme traits and favor those with more intermediate characteristics

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Disruptive Selection

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Favors organisms that have character values at the extremes of the phenotypic distribution

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Variation in nature 2 kinds (singular and plural)

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Individuals and populations. Individuals for example every ladybug has a different spot pattern

Populations in one area have different adaptations than those in another.

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Evolution

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Change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations, which may be caused by natural selection, inbreeding, hybridization, and mutation

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Genotypic Variation

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Variation in the genetic makeup of an organism

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Phenotypic Variation

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Variation in the physical appearance of an organism

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Trait

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Distinguishing quality or characteristic

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Discrete traits

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Trait that does not have a range of phenotypes

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Quantitative traits

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a trait that varies along a continuum

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Sexually Dimorphic Traits

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A traits that differs between males and females

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Causes of Variation

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Genetic Variation, Environmental Variation

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Heritability

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The proportion of observed variation in a particular trait that can be attributed to inherited genetic factors

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mutation

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permanent change in the chemical structure of the gene

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Environmental Variation

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Variation in phenotype influenced by differing physical or biological environments

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Phenotypic Plasticity

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The ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to changes in the environment. Also may change animal behavior.

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Environmental variation example with plants

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deeper roots in response to water shortage, larger leaves in response to increased shade

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Also an example with animals

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Aphids grow wings to move to new plants, change in lipid composition of cells in respone to cold climate

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Adaptation

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A trait with a current functional role in the life history of an organism that is maintained and evolved by means of natural selection

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Imperfection of adaptation

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Non-adaptive traits tied to adaptive traits

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Constraints of organisms

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Adaptations are shaped by environmental aspects that influence fitness, genetic correlations with phenotype, the organisms history

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homologyHomology

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When a structure is present in an ancestral species and is retained in descendant species. Possibly with evolutionary modification

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Homoplasy (convergent evolution)

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the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages

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LIfe History

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Age at maturity, Frequency of reproduction, number of offspring, size of offspring, resources to reproduction

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Structural Evolution, Convergent Evolution

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Structural: Tarigarid, Convergent: Porcupine, echnida. They did not have a common ancestor, Co-Adaptation. The existence of one species is tightly tied up with the existence of another

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Pollinators

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Closely involved to the plants they pollinate

Plants are only pollinated by a single pollinator, Bats for example are the only mammal who can pollinate this kind of plant

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Mimicry

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Co-Adaptation where one organism adapted to resemble another, It also makes the organism more susceptible to co-extinction

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Inbreeding

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Mating between closely related individuals

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Outbreeding

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mating between non related individuals

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Measuring Inbreeding

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The inbreeding coefficient (F-Value), the probability that two mating individuals have an allele (gene variant) in common from a common ancestor. That's what we call an F-value

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If the F is 0

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That means there is a very small likelihood that they share common alleles from a common ancestor

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F=1

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High inbreeding coefficient

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Populations in low numbers often have a high inbreeding coefficient

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Domesticate and Cultivated, which made them have almost no genetic variability, inbreeding for so long that no different DNA was put into the species.

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The self fertilizing organisms

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Have a very high inbreeding coefficient

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Homozygosity

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Having two copies of the same allele, slowly everyone has the same allele in the population

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Heterozygosity

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Having different alleles

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When is inbreeding good

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In the agriculture industry, you want to have a standard predictable result among your population, decrease the amount of variation you have

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Inbred Lines

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Groups of inbreeding organisms

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Artificial Selection and Natural Selection

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Individuals that are related share the same traits

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Inbreeding cons

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Reduced heterozygosity, Reduced genetic variation, reduced fertility, increased mortality, reduced immunity to disease, increased genetic disorders, the odds you are getting that gene passed on are very high

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Population bottleneck

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a sharp reduction in the population size due to an environmental event or human activities, there would be no stoppage, the numer of individuals that interbreed is getting smaller

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Life History

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cycle of birth, reproduction and death of an organism

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Fitness

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the success in contributing descendants to the next generation

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Main focus of special fitness

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Reproduction, Survival, and Death

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Semelparous

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The organism reaches maturity, reproduces and then dies. It will only reproduce once in its lifetime. They shift resources from survival to reproduction. It increases their fitness despite only breeding once

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In some cases semelparity is favored over iteroparity

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Natural selection may favor reproducing quickly rather than waiting

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Resource Allocation

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re-allocation of resources does not come without a cost

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Parental Investment

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the total parental expenditure of energy on offspring through the number and size of offspring, their care, and their defense

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Iteroparous

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a pattern of repeated reproduction throughout the organism's lifetime, natural selection favors an intermediate number of offspring

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Reproduction takes energy away from

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Somatic Maintenance, Predator Avoidance, Growth

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Tons of Offspring =

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Parental fitness decreases

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More eggs=

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lower parental survival

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Natural selection favors an certain number of offspring for that species

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Intermediate

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Reproductive Restraint

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In some cases evolution wont compromise (semelparity), Natural selection is focused on fitness, survival loses out of reproduction in a trade-off, we live only to reproduce

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Larger offspring have greater survival than smaller offspring

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and they have a more caloric reserve