Biology Ch 2-9 Terms And Concepts

Front 1

What are the elements that make up 97.6% of human body weight, as well as all living matter?

Back 1

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur

Front 2

What are the different types of chemical bonds?

Back 2

Covalent Bonds, Ionic Bonds, and Hydrogen Bonds . Strongest to Weakest.

Front 3

Ionic Bond

Back 3

Give or Take electrons from other molecules and become ions

Front 4

covalent bonds

Back 4

Shares electrons to fill its valence shells

Front 5

Hydrogen Bonds

Back 5

Molecules connect because of partial charges

Front 6

Water molecules undergo what type of bonding

Back 6

hydrogen bonding, meaning water molecules are polar

Front 7

What are some characteristics of water?

Back 7

Supports all organisms, the molecules are polar, water is cohesive, it moderates temperature, has high specific heat, has evaporative cooling, it expands and is less dense when it freezes, as well as it is an excellent solvent.

Front 8

What is hydrophobic vs. hydrophilic

Back 8

Water fearing vs. Water loving, Water fearing repels water and does not dissolve easiy in water, nor does it absorb water. Water loving does all of these.

Front 9

What does organic chemistry involve?

Back 9

Carbon- carbon can form 4 covalent bonds, it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. It has flexibility in bonding

Front 10

What are isomers?

Back 10

have the same chemical formula but a different arrangement of atoms

Front 11

what are the different types of isomers?

Back 11

structural- differ in covalent bonding partners
Geometric- differ in arrangement about a double bond
Enantiomers- differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon...mirror images

Front 12

What are the Functional Groups?

Back 12

Hydroxl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Sulfhydryl, Phosphate

Front 13

What are the important biological molecules?

Back 13

ATP, Lipids, Saccharides, Nucleic Acids, Proteins

Front 14

What is defined as the capacity to cause change.

Back 14

Energy

Front 15

The three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90 percent of the time is what?

Back 15

The orbital

Front 16

The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter are called ?

Back 16

Chemical Reactions

Front 17

What makes water different from most other liquids?

Back 17

It is more structured, making many of its properties possible, such as cohesion, surface tension and adhesion

Front 18

a measure of the total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter.

Back 18

Heat

Front 19

measures the intensity of heat due to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.

Back 19

Temperature

Front 20

The what of a substance is defined as the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature by 1 degree C. The specific heat of water is 1 calorie per gram per degree Celsius.

Back 20

Specific Heat

Front 21

the primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell

Back 21

ATP is ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPATE

Front 22

Hydroxyl

Back 22

--OH

Front 23

Carbonyl

Back 23

--CO--

Front 24

Carboxyl

Back 24

--COOH

Front 25

Amino

Back 25

NH2

Front 26

Sulfhydryl

Back 26

--SH

Front 27

Phosphate

Back 27

OPO32- or OPO3H2

Front 28

Explain why table salt is a compound, while the oxygen we breath is not.

Back 28

Table salt is a compound because it is made up of two elements, Na and Cl, while the oxygen we breathe is only made up of one.

Front 29

How many electrons does fluorine have? How many electron shells? Name the orbitals that are occupied. How many unpaired electrons does fluorine have?

Back 29

Fluorine has 9 electrons. This means it has two electron shells. The first shell is full and the second has 7 electrons which is 1 less than being full. This means it has one unpaired electron. It fills the orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2p—fills 3 orbitals

Front 30

Explain what holds together the atoms in a crystal of magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Back 30

Mg and Cl have opposite charges therefore are held together by ionic bonds.

Front 31

Describe how properties of water contribute to the upward movement of water in a tree.

Back 31

Hydrogen bonds hold neighboring water molecules together; this cohesion helps the molecules resist the downward pull of gravity. Adhesion between water molecules and the walls of water-conduction cells also counters the downward pull of gravity. As water evaporates from the leaves, the chain of water molecules in water-conducting cells moves upward.

Front 32

Explain the popular adage, “it’s not the heat, it’s the humidity”

Back 32

High humidity hampers cooling by suppressing the evaporation of sweat.

Front 33

The reactivity of an atom arises from?

Back 33

the existence of unpaired electrons in the valence shell.

Front 34

Many mammals control their body temperature by sweating. Which property of water is most directly responsible for the ability to sweat to lower body temperature?

Back 34

the absorption of heat by the breaking of hydrogen bonds.

Front 35

For two bodies of matter in contact, heat always flow from

Back 35

The body of higher temperature to the one of lower temperature

Front 36

What change usually occurs in ATP when it releases energy?

Back 36

The ATP molecule loses a phosphate and be comes ADP

Front 37

What does the term “amino acid” signify about the structure of such a molecule?

Back 37

It has both an amino group and a carboxyl group which makes it a carboxyl acid

Front 38

These Include the four main classes of large biological molecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. On the molecular scale these molecules are huge.

Back 38

Macromolecule

Front 39

Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are all chain-like molecules called these. They are a molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds. (Like of train).

Back 39

Polymer

Front 40

The building blocks that make up a polymer (like a single train car).

Back 40

Monomer

Front 41

monomers are connected by this reaction which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other through loss of a water molecule. When a bond forms between two monomers, each monomer contributes part of the water molecule that is lost, one provides a hydroxyl group (OH) and the other provides a hydrogen (-H). The cell must expend energy to carry these out.

Back 41

CONDENSATION REACTION (DEHYDRATION REACTION)

Front 42

specialized proteins that speed up chemical reactions in a cell.

Back 42

ENZYMES

Front 43

a process that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction and disassembles monomers from a polymer.

Back 43

HYDROLYSIS

Front 44

include both sugars and the polymers of sugars.

Back 44

CARBOHYDRATES

Front 45

The simplest carbohydrate (the monomer of a carbohydrate polymer). generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of CH2O. These are major nutrients for cells.

Back 45

MONOSACCHARIDE

Front 46

The carbohydrates that are macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharide joined by glycosidic linkages.

Back 46

polysaccharides

Front 47

consist of two monosaccharide joined by a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE

Back 47

DISACCHARIDE

Front 48

a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharide by a dehydration reaction.

Back 48

GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE

Front 49

a polymer of glucose that animals store

Back 49

GLYCOGEN

Front 50

organisms build strong materials from structural polysaccharides such as this, which is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells.

Back 50

CELLULOSE

Front 51

the one class of large biological molecules that do not consist of polymers.They are grouped together because they have little or no affinity for water. They consist mainly of hydrocarbons.

Back 51

LIPIDS

Front 52

Examples of Lipids

Back 52

Fats phospholipids and steroids are examples of lipids.

Front 53

What is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids.

Back 53

FAT

Front 54

has a long carbon skeleton. Two types of these one that is saturated with hydrogen and the other has double carbon bonds with less hydrogen.

Back 54

A FATTY ACID

Front 55

This consist of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecules by an ester linkage.

Back 55

TRIACYLGLYCEROL

Front 56

These are similar to a fat, but has only two fatty acids attached to glycerol rather than three.

Back 56

PHOSPHOLIPID

Front 57

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.

Back 57

Steroids

Front 58

an example of a steroid- it is a common component of animal cell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized.

Back 58

CHOLESTROL

Front 59

Proteins account for more than How much of the dry mass of most cells

Back 59

50%

Front 60

the most important type of protein. These proteins regulate metabolism by acting as CATALYSTS

Back 60

ENZYMES

Front 61

These chemical agents that selectively speed up chemicals reactions in a cell without being consumed by the reaction.

Back 61

CATALYSTS

Front 62

the polymers of amino acids. A PROTEIN consists of one or more these folded and coiled into specific conformations.

Back 62

POLYPEPTIDES

Front 63

organic molecules possessing both carboxyl and amino groups.

Back 63

Amino Acids

Front 64

when two amino acids are postioned so that the carboxyl group of one is adjacent to the amino group of the other, an enzyme can caused them to join by catalyzing a dehydration reaction, with the removal of a water molecule. The resulting bond is what?

Back 64

Peptide Bonds

Front 65

The what of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids.

Back 65

PRIMARY STRUCTURE

Front 66

Most proteins have segments of their polypeptide chains repeatedly coiled or folded in patterns that contribute to the proteins overall conformation. These coils and folds, collectively referred to as what? They are result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone.

Back 66

SECONDARY STRUCTURE

Front 67

This is a secondary structure, that is a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid.

Back 67

α HELIX

Front 68

A type of secondary structure. In this structure two or more regions of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel polypeptide backbones.

Back 68

βPLEATED SHEET

Front 69

The three dimensional shape of a polypeptide

Back 69

TERTIARY STRUCTURE

Front 70

as a polypeptide folds into its functional conformation, amino acids with hydrophobic (non-polar) side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein out of contact with water. What is this interaction called?

Back 70

HYDROPHOPIC INTERACTIONS

Front 71

These form where two cysteine monomers, amino acids with sulfhydryl groups on their side chains, are brought close together by the folding of the proteins.

Back 71

DISULFIDE BRIDGES

Front 72

This is if the pH, alt concentrations, temperature, or other aspects of its environment are altered, the protein may unravel and lose its native conformation.

Back 72

DENATURATION

Front 73

Genes consist of DNA which is a polymer belonging to the class of compounds known as what?

Back 73

NUCLEIC ACIDS.

Front 74

What are the two types of nucleic acids and their functions?

Back 74

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) and RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)these molecules enable living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one generation to the next.

Front 75

Nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers called what?

Back 75

POLYNUCLEOTIDES

Front 76

Polynucleotide's monomers ae called what? And what are they composed of?

Back 76

• Each polynucleotide consists of monomers called NUCLEOTIDES. A nucleotide is composed of three parts: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five carbon sugar) and a phosphate group.

Front 77

What are the different kinds of microscopes?

Back 77

LIGHT MICROSCOPES (LMs), and ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (EM)

Front 78

Subcellular structure are called what? (like the different organs of a cell.)

Back 78

ORGANELLES

Front 79

What is the study of cell structure called?

Back 79

CYTOLOGY

Front 80

What process takes cells apart and separate the major organelles from one another?

Back 80

Cell Fractionation

Front 81

The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells

Back 81

prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

Front 82

Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of _______ Cells. Protists, fungi, animals and plants are all composed of __________ cells.

Back 82

prokaryotic and eukaryotic

Front 83

What are some differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?

Back 83

Eukaryotic- Generally Larger, more complex, some organelles covered (bound) by membranes, includes protist, plants, fungi and animals.
Prokaryotic- smaller, less complex, organelles not covered by membranes, inclues bacteria and archaea.

Front 84

What are the organelles in a eukaryotic cell?

Back 84

cytoplasmic membrane, cell wall (only in some), appendages, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, nucleus, endomembrane system, Ribosomes, Mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Front 85

Describe the make up of a biological membrane.

Back 85

they are phospholipid bilayers- which are two layers of lipids, hydrophobic side facing each other on the inside

Front 86

Describe the nucleus and nucleoid

Back 86

Eukaryotic nucleus is membrane bound, it has the DNA, RNA and proteins that are surrounded by nuclear membrane. The DNA of a prokaryote is nake and located in the nucleoid

Front 87

Describe the make up and function of MItochondria.

Back 87

They are membrane bound (inner and outer), involved in making ATP (the power house of the cell) Has its own DNA, and has ribosomes

Front 88

Describe chloroplasts.

Back 88

membrane bound (inner and outer), are involved in photosynthesis, has its own DNA and ribosomes

Front 89

What are the similarites of Mitochondria, Chloroplasts and prokayotic cells

Back 89

size, cenclosed by membranes, contain DNA and ribosomes.

Front 90

What is the Endomembrane System?

Back 90

It is an extension or continuation of the nuclear membrane -ER.

Front 91

What are the components of the Endomembrane System?

Back 91

Nuclear membrane, Endoplasmc reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, digestive enzymes and ribosmes.

Front 92

What are vesicles?

Back 92

they shuttle things from one place in the cell to another.

Front 93

What are digestive enzymes?

Back 93

They are proteins that help carry out chemical reactions that break down other things (?)

Front 94

Ribosomes are broken into two parts, what are these called?

Back 94

The large and small sub-units

Front 95

What is the function of a Ribosome?

Back 95

RNA --> Polypeptide, they link amino acids together to form peptide bonds.

Front 96

What is the cytoskeleton?

Back 96

it consists of threadlike proteins, and aids in the movement of cells as a whole and the organelles inside of the cell.

Front 97

What are cilia and flagella?

Back 97

They help move the cell as a unit, Eukaryotic appendages. Long appendage is a flagellum, the short are cilia. the appendages beat to move and they have a distinctive protein structure.

Front 98

Describe Cell Walls

Back 98

they are found only in some eukaryotic cells, support and give the cell structure, they are made up of polysaccharides.

Front 99

What must all things going into or out of a cell do.

Back 99

They must cross at least one cell membrane.

Front 100

Describe the movements of cell membranes

Back 100

the phospholipids move laterally in a membrane, but flipping from one side of the bilayer to the other is rare

Front 101

What else is in a membrane?

Back 101

Proteins- which are embedded in the bilayer or on the surface.

Front 102

Describe Proteins-

Back 102

they are made of amino acids, soem are nonpolar and some are polar and others are elecrically charged. They function in different ways and are found in membranes.

Front 103

What is the function of cholesterol in a cell?

Back 103

It can help moderate fluidity when temperatures change in cell membranes.

Front 104

What is passive transport?

Back 104

Diffusion through a bilayer. Things move in and out of cells without the cell using energy. Passive Transport can also take place through transport proteins (protein channels)

Front 105

What can cross a phospholipid bilayer?

Back 105

nonpolar covalent bonds, small. Polar molecules or larger moelcules cannot.

Front 106

What is an aquaporin?

Back 106

A protein channel that allows water to get through the membrane.

Front 107

What limits passive transport?

Back 107

Concentration Gradients, and electochemical gradients, always go from higher to lower concentration.

Front 108

What is active transport?

Back 108

It requires energy- many use ATP as an energy source. These are protein pumps.

Front 109

What is cotransport?

Back 109

one molecule hitcing a ride through a protein pump when another molecule "opens the gates"

Front 110

The subunit assemply of a protein- which is one or more polypeptide.

Back 110

Quaternary Structure

Front 111

What are the different ends of a protein?

Back 111

A polypeptide has one amino and one carboxyl end.

Front 112

What are the functions of proteins?

Back 112

Enzymatic, Structural, storage, Receptors, transport.

Front 113

The sequences of proteins are what?

Back 113

significant

Front 114

What is the general flow of information when refering to Proteins, DNA and RNA?

Back 114

DNA transcribes onto RNA and then given to the protein.

Front 115

What is bulk transport?

Back 115

It is the way cells take "big bites", these include endocytosis- englufing
and exocytosis- expelling
Only eukaryotic cells can do this as long as they dont have cell walls

Front 116

What is the first step of metabolism?

Back 116

Entering the cell

Front 117

What is catabolism?

Back 117

Catobolism breaks down substrates, which include ATP, "Electron Donors" and "precursor metabolits"

Front 118

What are the electron donors that work with metabolism?

Back 118

NADH <-> NAD, NADPH <-> NADP and FADH2 <-> FAD

Front 119

What is molecular cycling

Back 119

the cycle of regenerating energy for the cells, which work from ATP -> losing evergy for cellular work -> ADP + P1 -> Energy gained from catbolism -> back to ATP

Front 120

What are the three principle catabolic pathways?

Back 120

Glycolysis, Citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. (See and study book diagrams)

Front 121

What is the inputs and outputs of glycolysis?

Back 121

Input: glucose Output: 2 pyruvate + 2 H2O and 2 ATP and 2 NADH + 2H+

Front 122

Where does glycolysis take place?

Back 122

in the cytosol

Front 123

Describe the general process of cellular respiration.

Back 123

Glycolysisi takes each glucose molecule and breaks it down into two molecules of pyruvate, the pyruvate enters the mitochondrion, where the citric acid cycle oxidzes it to carbon dioxide, NADh and a similar coenzyme FADH2 transfer electrons derived from glucose to electron transpor chains, which are built into the inner mitochondrial membrane. During oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport chains convert the chemical energy to form used for ATP syntheiss in the process called chemiosmosis.

Front 124

What are the inputs and outputs of the citric acid cycle?

Back 124

Input: pyruvate-which supplies the three carbon chain.
Output: 2CO2, 3NADH, 1 FADH2, and ! ATP

Front 125

What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

Back 125

some ATP is made by direct enzymatic transfer of a phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP

Front 126

What is Oxidative Phosphorylation?

Back 126

It is "aerobic respiration" which means it requres 02. Oxygen is the ulitimate electron acceptor. An organic phospate is added to ADP in this process.

Front 127

Where does the ATP come from?

Back 127

Glycolysis --> 2 per glucose
Citric Acid --> 2
Per pyruvate --> 1
Oxidative phosphorylation- about 32 per glucose

Front 128

What is anaerobic?

Back 128

with out oxygen, they are the organisms that live where there is none available

Front 129

What do you really need for glycolysis?

Back 129

Glucose, ADP and phosphate to regenerate ATP, adn NAD

Front 130

What is the use of fermentaion

Back 130

it provides a mechanism by which some cells can oxidze organic fuel and generate ATP without the use of oxygen.

Front 131

How does fermentation work?

Back 131

oxidation refers to the loss of ecetrons to any electron acceptor, it doesnt have to be oxygen. Glycolysis still coccurs. The NAD is recycled productively from NADH by the transfer of electons to the elecron transport chain.

Front 132

What does breaking down glucoses produce?

Back 132

ATP (enegry), "precursor metabolites" (carbon), this pathway is used by chemoheterotrophs.

Front 133

What is the source of carbon and evergy for a chemoheterotroph?

Back 133

Catabolism and molecules

Front 134

What is the source of carbon and energy in a chemoautotroph?

Back 134

C02 and Molecules

Front 135

What is the source of carbon and energy in a photoheterotroph?

Back 135

Catabolism and Light

Front 136

What is the sourch of carbon and energy in a photoautotroph?

Back 136

CO2 and Light

Front 137

What are the significances of autotrophs?

Back 137

They support the ecosystem by providing food.

Front 138

What are the two processes of photosynthesis?

Back 138

LIght reactions and the calvin cycle

Front 139

Where do the different reactions of photosynthesis occur?

Back 139

in the chlorplasts

Front 140

What can perform photosynthesis?

Back 140

Plants (eukaryotic), Protists (some) (eukaryotic) and Prokaryotes (some)

Front 141

What is an exergonic reaction?

Back 141

a reactions that proceeds with a net relaese of free energy

Front 142

What is an endergonic reaction?

Back 142

a reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.

Front 143

What are the three main knds or work that a cell perfroms?

Back 143

Mechanical- such as the beating of cilia, Transport- such as the pumping of substances across membranes
Chemical- the pusing of endergonic reactions

Front 144

What is energy coupling?

Back 144

the use of exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

Front 145

What is ATP

Back 145

Adenosine triphosphate, the main source of energy for the cell, it contains the sugar ribose, with the nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it

Front 146

What occurs to make ATP into ADP?

Back 146

When the terminal phospate bond is broken, a molecule of inorganic phosphate leaves the ATP which becomes adenosine diphosphate or ADP, this reaction is exergonic

Front 147

How does the energy from ATP transfer?

Back 147

With the help of specific enzymes, the cell is able to couple the energy of ATP hydrolysis directly to endergonic processes by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to some other molecules, such as the reactant. The recipient of the phosphate group is then said to be phosphorylated.

Front 148

What is the process that happens to ADP to return it back to ATP

Back 148

the ADP is phosphorylated to replenish it back to ATP

Front 149

What is a catabolic pathway?

Back 149

a metabolic pathway that releases stored energy by breaking down complex molecules.

Front 150

What is the general process of producing energy in the cell?

Back 150

Organic compouds + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

More specifically:

C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 --> 6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP + heat)

Front 151

In a redox reaction which process adds and which prosses looses electrons?

Back 151

A loss of electrons is oxidation and an addition of electrons is reduction

Front 152

what is cellular respiration?

Back 152

the oxidation of glucose and other molecules. by oxidizing glucose, respiration liberates stored energy from glucose and makes it available for ATP synthesis

Front 153

In cellular respiration what is the path of the hydrogen atoms?

Back 153

The hydrogen atoms are not transferred directly to oxygen, but instead are usually passed first to a coenzyme called NAD+. NAD+ has its charge neutralized with the addition of a hydrogen and becomes NADH

Front 154

What is the electron transport chain?

Back 154

respiration uses this to break the fall of electons to oxygen into sever energy-releasing stemps instead of one explosive reaction. Oxygen pulls electons down the chain in an energy-yielding tumble analogous to gravity pulling objects down.

Front 155

What is the path of the electons in cellular respiration?

Back 155

food -> NADH -> electron transport chain -> oxygen

Front 156

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

Back 156

the production of ATP using energy dervied from the redox reactions of an elctron transport chain.

Front 157

What is the substrate-level phosphorylation?

Back 157

the small amount of ATP formed during teh reactions of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Front 158

What is acetyl CoA?

Back 158

Pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle and is first covnerted into this compound.

Front 159

How does the electron transport chain work?

Back 159

each component of the chain becomes reduced when it accepts electrons from it "uphill" neighbor which has a lower affinity for electrons. It then returns to its oxidized form as it passes elctrons to its "downhill" more electronegative neighbor.

Front 160

What is ATP synthase?

Back 160

the enzyme that actually makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. It uses the energy of an existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis

Front 161

What is chemiosmosis?

Back 161

an energy coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in teh form of a H+ gradient across a membrane the drive cellular work such as the synthesis of ATP. It is the flow of H+ across a membrane.

Front 162

What is the proton-motive force?

Back 162

The H+ gradient that results is referred to as a proton-motive force, emphasizing the capacity of the gradient to perform the work.

Front 163

What is the energy flow during respiration?

Back 163

glucose -> NADH -> electron transfer chian -> proton motive force -> ATP

Front 164

What are two types of fermentation?

Back 164

alcohol and lactic acid

Front 165

What are facultative anaerobes?

Back 165

they are organisms including yeast and many bacteria that can make enough ATP to survive using either fermentation or respiration

Front 166

What are other forms of food that a cell can use, besides glucose, to perform catbolism?

Back 166

fats, proteins, sucrose, other disaccharides, starch and polysaccharides.

Front 167

What is photosynthesis?

Back 167

the chloroplast of plants capture sun light and convert it to chemical energy stored in sugar and other organic molecules.

Front 168

What are autotrophs?

Back 168

"self-feeders" they sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms. They are considered producers.

Front 169

What are heterotrphs?

Back 169

they obtain their organic material by the seocond major mode of nutrition. they live on compounds froduced by other organisms. They are consumers.

Front 170

What makes the plant green?

Back 170

chlorophyll- the green pigment located within the chloroplasts

Front 171

Where are chloroplast found?

Back 171

they are found mainly in the cells of the mesophyll- the tissue interior of teh leaf.

Front 172

What are the stomata, stroma and thylakoids?

Back 172

Stomata- carbon dioxide enters teh leaf, and oxygen exits by the way of these microscopic pores
Stroma- an envelope of two membranes enclose the stroma which is the dense fluid within the chloroplasts
Thylakoids- an elborate system of interconnected membranous sacs. It segregates teh sroma from another compartment, the interior of teh thylakoids.

Front 173

What is the simplified chemical reaction that takes place in photosynthesis?

Back 173

CO2 + H2O --> [CH2O] + o2

The actual equation:
6 CO2+ 12 H2O + light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O

Front 174

What are light reactions?

Back 174

The light reactions are teh steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical energy. Light abosrbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of electrons and hydrogen from water to an acceptor called NADP+. The light reactions use solar pwer to reduce NADP+ to NADPH by adding a pair of electrons along with a hydrogen nucleus, or H+. The light reactiosn also generate ATP using chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phosphate group to ADP, a process called photophosphorylation.

Front 175

What is carbon fixation?

Back 175

the initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds.

Front 176

Why do we see green as the color of plants?

Back 176

The chlorophyll abosorbs violet-blue, and red light while transmitting and relflecting green light.

Front 177

What are the three pigments of chloroplasts?

Back 177

Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b and Carotenoids

Front 178

How does a photosystem harvest light?

Back 178

When aphoton strikes a pigemnt moelcule in a light-harvesting complex the energy is passed from one molecule to molecule until it reaches the reaction center. At the reaction center, an excited electrons from one of the special chlorophyll a molecules is captured by the primary elctron acceptor.

Front 179

What is a photosystem?

Back 179

is composed of a reaction center surounded by a number of light-harvesting complexes

Front 180

What are light harvesting complexes?

Back 180

they each consist of pigment molecules bound to particular proteins. The number and variety of pigment molecules enable a photosystem to harvest light over a larger surface and a larger portion of the spectrum than any single pigment moelcule alone could.

Front 181

What is the reaction center within light reactions?

Back 181

a protein complex that inclues two special chlorophyll a molecules and a moleucle called the primary electron acceptor. This is the first step of the light reactions.

Front 182

Write the formula for a monosaccharide that has three carbons

Back 182

C3H6O3

Front 183

What does a denatured protein no longer function normally?

Back 183

The function of each protein is a consequence of its specific shape, which is lost when a protein becomes denatured

Front 184

Differentiate between secondary and tertiary structure by describing the parts of the polypeptide chain that participate in the bonds that hold together each level of the structure.

Back 184

Secondary structure involves hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone. Tertiary structure involves bonding b/w atoms of teh R groups of the amino acid subunits

Front 185

A genetic mutation can change a proteins primary structure, how can this destroy the proteins function?

Back 185

The amino acid sequence affects the shape of the protein and the function of a protein depends on its shape.

Front 186

What role do the ribosomes play in carrying out the genetic instructions?

Back 186

Ribosomes in the cytoplasm translate the genetic messages, carried from the DNA in the nucleus by mRNA, into a polypeptide chain

Front 187

How do transport vesicles serve to integrate the endomembrane system?

Back 187

Transport vesicles move membranes and substances they enclose between other components of teh endomembrane system.

Front 188

Describe at least two common charactersitcs of chloroplast and mitochondria.

Back 188

Both organelles are involved in energy transformation, mitochondria in cellular repiration and chloroplast in photosyntheisis. they are both enclosed by two or more separate membranes.

Front 189

Explain the characteristics of mitochondria and chloroplasts that place them in a separate category from organelles in the endomembrane system.

Back 189

Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA, which encodes some of their proteins. they are not connected physically or via transport vesicles to organelles of teh endomembrane system.

Front 190

Two molecules that can cross a lipid bilayer without help from membrane proteins are O2 and CO2. What properties allow this?

Back 190

small nonpolar covalent bonds

Front 191

As a cell grows, its plasma membrane expands. does this process involve endocytosis or exocytosis.

Back 191

exocytosis. When a transport vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, the vesicle membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane.

Front 192

In most cases, how does ATP transfer energy from exergonic to endergonic processes in the cell?

Back 192

ATP transfers energy to endergonic processes by phosphorylating other molecules

Front 193

What cellular processes produce the carbon dioxide you exhale?

Back 193

Co2 is removed from pyruvate, which is produced in glycolysis, and Co2 is produced by the citric acid cycle

Front 194

What effect would an absence of O2 have on oxidative phosphorylation?

Back 194

Oxidative phosphorylation would stop entirely, resulting in no ATP production. Without oxygen to "pull" electrons down the electron transport chain, H+ would not be pumped into the mitochondrion's intermembrane space and chemiosmosis would not occur.

Front 195

Consider the NADH formed during glycolysis. What is the final acceptor for its electons during fermentation? what is teh final acceptor for its electrons during respiration.

Back 195

A derivative of pyruvate- either acetaldehyde during alcohol fermentation or pyruvate itself during lactic acid fermentation; oxygen

Front 196

A glucose fed yeast cell is moved form an aerobic environment to an anaerobic one. For the cell to continue generating ATP at the same rate, how would its rate of glucose consuption need to change?

Back 196

The cell would need to consume glucose at a rate about 19 times the consumption rate in the aerobic environment. (2 ATP are generated by fermentation per molecule of glucose versus up to 38 by cellular respiration)

Front 197

What will happen in a muscle cell that has used up its supply of oxygen and ATP?

Back 197

AMP will accumulate, stimulating phosphorfructokinase, which increasees the rate of glycolysis. Since oxygen is not present in the cell will convert pyruvate to lactate in lactic acid fermentation, providing a sypply of ATP.

Front 198

Describe how the two stages of photosynthesis are dependent on each other.

Back 198

The Calvin cycle depends on teh NADPH and ATP that the light reactions generate, and the light reactions depend on the NADP+ and ADP and the inorganic phosphate that the calvin cycle generates.

Front 199

To synthesize one glucose molecule, the Calvin cycles uses ___ molescules of CO2, ____ molecules or ATP and ___ molescules of NADPH

Back 199

6, 18, 12

Front 200

Why doesnt a prokaryotic cell have a cytoskeleton?

Back 200

Cytoplasmic streaming is not boserved in prokaryotes.

Front 201

What type of cell would probably provide the best opportunity to study lysosomes?

Back 201

phagocytic white blood cells

Front 202

What path do the electrons take in during light reactions?

Back 202

Noncyclic Electron Flow or some times the cyclic elcecron flow.

Front 203

What is teh general description of the light reactions?

Back 203

The light reactions use solar power to generate ATP and NADPH, which provide chemical energy and reducing power, respecitively, to the sugar-making reactions of teh Calvin cycle.

Front 204

What are the three phases of teh Calvin Cycle?

Back 204

Carbon Fixation, reduction and regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)

Front 205

What is carbon fixation?

Back 205

CO2 molecules enter one at a time, and attatch to a fivecarbon sugar named RuBP. The product is a six-carbon intermediate so unstable that it immediately spits in hald, forming two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate

Front 206

What is Reduction Stage of the Calvin Cycle?

Back 206

Each 3 phosphoglycerate recieves an additional phosphate group from ATP. One G3P exits the cycle to be used by the plant cell, but the other five molecules must be recycled to regenerate thre three molecules of RuBP

Front 207

What is The Regeneration of teh CO2 acceptor (RuBP)

Back 207

In a complex series of reactions, the carbon skeletons of five molecules of G3P are rearragned by the last steps of the Calvin cycle into three molecules of RuBP. To accomplish this the cycle spends three moremolecules of ATP. The RuBP is now prepared to recieve Co2 again and the cycle continues.

Front 208

Describe the general overview of photosynthesis

Back 208

The light reactions capture solar energy and use it to make ATP and transfer electons from water to NADP+. The Calvin cycles uses the ATP and NADPH to produce sugar from carbon dixide. The evergy that enters the chloroplasts as sunlight becomes stored as chemical energy in organic compounds.