Biology Ch. 14-17

Front 1

What is the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology?

Back 1

DNA --> RNA --> Protein

Replication ---> transcription --> translation

Front 2

What are the differences between DNA and RNA?

Back 2

DNA lasts a long time, has bases of A, T, C, & G

RNA is temporary, leads to DNA, gets DNA's message to protein, has bases of A, U, C, & G, has an oxygen that DNA does not

Front 3

When DNA is replicated, what does it provide the blueprint for?

Back 3

Any organism to function

Front 4

RNA serves as the ____ between DNA and protein.

Back 4

Intermediate (DNA is transcribed to RNA)

Front 5

RNA is _____ to protein

Back 5

Translated; protein does work of the cell

Front 6

What does each stage of the Central Dogma consist of?

Back 6

Initiation, Elongation, and Termination

Front 7

When does the cell divide?

Back 7

After replication

Front 8

What did Griffith propose?

Back 8

Transforming principle

Front 9

What did Avery, Macleod, & McCarthy propose?

Back 9

DNA is the transforming principle

Front 10

What did Watson & Crick do?

Back 10

Discover the molecular structure of DNA

Front 11

What happened in Griffith's experiment?

Back 11

Studied bacteria causing pneumonia, 2 strains- one caused disease, other doesn't

-infected mice

-living S strain killed, living R did not

-heat-killed S strain did not kill

-heat-killed S strain + live R strain killed mice

(Nonvirulent bacteria becomes virulent from dead S strain -- transforming principle)

Front 12

What did Avery, Macleod, & McCarty do?

Back 12

Repeated Griffith's experiment using purified cell extracts, removed all protein, carbs, fat, DNA to see what is transforming

DNA is transforming material and genetic material

Front 13

DNA is ________

Back 13

Nucleic acid

Front 14

What are the building blocks of of DNA?

Back 14

Nucleotides

Composed of sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, nitrogenous bases (A,T,C,G)

Front 15

What are the purines?

Back 15

Pure As Gold

Adenine and Guanine

Front 16

What are the pyridimines?

Back 16

PYCUT

Cytosine, Uracil, and Thyamine

Front 17

What is the structure of the nucleotides?

Back 17

Both the phosphate group and the nitrogenous base are attached to sugar, the OH group on sugar attaches to phosphate groups in chain

Front 18

What holds the nucleotides together?

Back 18

Phosphodiester bond

Front 19

Is tyrosinase both an enzyme and a protein?

Back 19

Yes

Front 20

Tyrosinase catalyzes what kind of reaction?

Back 20

Exergonic, oxidation-reduction

Front 21

What does tyrosinase do?

Back 21

Makes melanin - pigment of tissues

siamese cats have mutant gene, humans have it, potatoes have it

Front 22

What did Chargaff discover?

Back 22

Amount of adenine = amount of thyamine

Amount of cytosine = amount of guanine

Front 23

What did Franklin and Wilkins do?

Back 23

Used x-ray diffraction to identify 3D structure of DNA - helical & turns

Front 24

Double helix structure of DNA

Back 24

2 sugar phosphate backbones, nitrogenous bases toward interior, bases form hydrogen bonds with complementary bases on opposite sugar-phosphate backbone (major & minor grooves)

Front 25

What did Meselson & Stahl do?

Back 25

Investigated DNA replication with 3 possible mechanisms:

-conservative model

-semiconservative model ** unzip DNA

-dispersive model

Front 26

Each strand of DNA acts a ___________ for synthesis of new strand

Back 26

Template

Front 27

Replication includes 3 stages:

Back 27

1. Initiation - begins at origin of replication

2. Elongation - new strands of DNA synthesized by DNA polymerase III

3. Termination - replication is terminated differently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Proceeds in both directions around chromosome

Front 28

DNA sequence about ______ letters long

Back 28

200

Front 29

How can DNA be damaged?

Back 29

Mutagens

May be corrected

Caused by mistakes during DNA replication

Front 30

DNA replication is semi-_____________

Back 30

Semi-discontinuous

Polymerase III can only add nucleotides to 3' end

Front 31

Antiparallel 3' to 5' end matches up with...

Back 31

5' to 3' end of other strand

Front 32

Which strand is synthesized continuously?

Back 32

Leading strand (in direction of replication fork)

Front 33

Which strand is synthesized discontinuously creating Okazaki fragments?

Back 33

Lagging strand

Front 34

______ repairs; _________ builds; _________ unzips

Back 34

Ligase; polymerase; helicase

Front 35

What did Mendel observe?

Back 35

Patterns of inheritance

Front 36

What did Garrod observe?

Back 36

Patterns in humans

Front 37

What did Beadle and Tatum observe?

Back 37

Connected DNA to protein

Front 38

What did they study to explain how genes work?

Back 38

Human diseases

Front 39

What did Garrod study and what did he conclude?

Back 39

Alkaptonuria (peeing black)

-inherited by recessive allele

-lack particular enzyme

-connected genes and enzymes

Front 40

What did Beadle and Tatum study and conclude?

Back 40

Studied fungus with x-rays to damage DNA and look for cells with new mutant phenotype

-look for cells lacking enzymes (for arginine)

Genes transcribed & translated in protein; one gene for one enzyme - wrong

actually one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis

Front 41

Premises for B & T's study

Back 41

1. Fungal cells can easily grow in nutrient poor media

2. Fungal cells grow in nutrient rich media

3. X-ray mutagenesis randomly destroys DNA

4. Surviving mutated fungal cells put back in nutrient rich media

5. Transfer mutated cells to nutrient poor media to see which don't grow

Front 42

What is the five carbon sugar in DNA nucleotides?

Back 42

Deoxyribose

Front 43

What kind of nitrogenous bases have single ring structure?

Back 43

Pyridimines

Front 44

What kind of bonds bind nitrogenous bases together?

Back 44

Hydrogen

Front 45

What is a monomer of a nucleic acid?

Back 45

Nucleotide

Front 46

What are the sides of DNA made up of?

Back 46

Phosphates and sugars

Front 47

What kind of structure do purines have?

Back 47

Two ring

Front 48

What does A bind with? What does C bind with?

Back 48

A - T (in DNA) or U (RNA)

C - G

Front 49

What is the process of making more DNA from original DNA?

Back 49

Replication

Front 50

What enzyme breaks apart strands of DNA?

Back 50

Helicase

Front 51

Which enzyme zips up DNA after replication?

Back 51

DNA polymerase

Front 52

Sunbathing causes a mutation in which base?

Back 52

Thyamine

Front 53

T/F: Sunbathing causes cancer

Back 53

True

Front 54

T/F: Cancer is a genetic disease

Back 54

True

Front 55

What is an exception to the Central Dogma?

Back 55

HIV (retrovirus), mRNA, tRNA

HIV goes from RNA -> DNA (reverse transcriptase)

Front 56

T/F: Alkaptonuria is an inborn error in metabolism

Back 56

True

Front 57

Metabolism

Back 57

Sum of all chemical reactions

Front 58

Catabolism

Back 58

Chemical reactions that break down chemicals

Front 59

Anabolism

Back 59

Chemical reactions that build things up

Front 60

Who discovered transformation in bacteria?

Back 60

Griffith

Front 61

Who discovered material bacteria use to transform was DNA?

Back 61

Avery

Front 62

T/F: Albinism is an inborn error in metabolism

Back 62

True

Front 63

What is a symptom of alkaptonuria?

Back 63

Black urine

Front 64

What was the conclusion of B &T? What is the actual one?

Back 64

One gene- one enzyme

One gene - one polypeptide

Front 65

What did Crick & Brenner discover?

Back 65

DNA is read in sets of 3 nucleotides for each amino acid

Front 66

What is a codon?

Back 66

Set of 3 nucleotides specifying particular amino acid

Front 67

Where is the genetic code read?

Back 67

In mRNA

Front 68

What is the reading frame?

Back 68

Series of nucleotides read in sets of 3 (codon) - only 1 reading frame is correct for encoding the correct sequence of amino acids

Front 69

How many possible codons?

Back 69

64

Front 70

How many punctuation codons?

Back 70

4

1 start

3 stop

Front 71

Who identified the codons that specify each amino acid?

Back 71

Nirenberg

Front 72

Describe relationship between template strand and coding strand.

Back 72

Template 3' to 5' pair bases with coding strand from 5' end to 3' end

Front 73

Describe relationship between template strand and mRNA.

Back 73

mRNA pairs with template strand (replacing T's with U's and complementary bases).

mRNA synonymous with coding strand except for U's

Front 74

In a 4 nucleotide code, how many possible 3 letter words are formed?

Back 74

64 = 4^3

Front 75

How many codons code for amino acids in the language of life?

Back 75

61

(3 stop)

Front 76

Which enzyme is used in transcription?

Back 76

RNA polymerase

Front 77

Which molecule is used in translation?

Back 77

Ribosome

Front 78

The metabolism of tyrosinase is...

Back 78

Catabolic

Front 79

What kind of biological macromolecule is tyrosinase?

Back 79

Protein

Front 80

What is pyruvate dehydrogenase?

Back 80

Protein

Front 81

Start & stop codons can be anywhere in the strand, but what must it be?

Back 81

Divisible by 3

Front 82

Stop codons

Back 82

3 (UUA, UGA, UAG) in genetic code used to terminate translation

Front 83

Start codon

Back 83

Codon (AUG) used to signify start of translation

Front 84

How do you get insulin?

Back 84

Put human gene in bacteria and code for insulin

Front 85

Template strand

Back 85

Strand of DNA double helix used to make RNA

Front 86

Coding strand

Back 86

Strand of DNA complementary to template strand

Front 87

RNA polymerase

Back 87

Enzyme that synthesizes RNA from DNA template

Front 88

What does transcription proceed through?

Back 88

Initiation - RNA polymerase identifies where to begin

Elongation - RNA nucleotides added to 3' end of new RNA

Termination - RNA polymerase stops transcription when it encounters terminators in DNA sequence

Front 89

What does translation proceed through?

Back 89

Initiation - mRNA, tRNA, and ribosome come together

Elongation - tRNAs bring amino acids to ribosome for incorporation into the polypeptide

Termination - ribosome encounters a stop codon & releases polypeptide

Front 90

What is the opposite of a codon?

Back 90

Anticodon (61) in tRNA

-complementary sequence

Front 91

What is created in translation?

Back 91

Protein (1 amino acid = 1 codon)

Front 92

What is created in transcription?

Back 92

mRNA

Front 93

Shape of the tRNA

Back 93

blob

Front 94

What does messenger RNA do?

Back 94

Carries information from DNA that encodes proteins

Front 95

What is ribosomal RNA?

Back 95

Structural component of ribosome

Front 96

What is transfer RNA?

Back 96

Carries amino acids to ribosome for translation

Front 97

Prokaryotic cells have RNA polymerase in 2 forms:

Back 97

Core polymerase - capable of RNA elongation, not initiation

Holoenzyme - core enzyme & sigma factor, required for transcription initiation

Front 98

Transcriptional unit

Back 98

(gene) extends from promoter to terminator

Front 99

Promoter

Back 99

DNA sequence for binding of RNA polymerase, start site (+1) - first base to be transcribed

Front 100

Transcription bubble

Back 100

Consists of RNA polymerase, DNA template, and growing RNA transcript (moves down template fast during elongation)

Front 101

How many tRNA molecules should there be?

Back 101

61

Front 102

What is a charged tRNA molecule?

Back 102

tRNA with amino acid attached

Front 103

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

Back 103

Adds amino acids to acceptor arm of tRNA

Front 104

Anticodon loop

Back 104

Contains 3 nucleotides complementary to mRNA

Front 105

Ribosome has multiple tRNA binding sites:

Back 105

P Site - binds tRNA attached to grow peptide chain

A site - binds tRNA carrying next amino acid

E site - binds tRNA that carried last amino acid

Front 106

What are the two functions of the ribosome in translation?

Back 106

1. Decodes mRNA

2. Forms peptide bonds

Front 107

What is peptidyl transferase?

Back 107

Enzymatic component of ribosome forms peptide bonds between amino acids

Front 108

Which ribosomal site does the initial tRNA go?

Back 108

P site

Front 109

What is a 3 nucleotide sequence?

Back 109

Codon or anticodon

Front 110

An anticodon is _________ to codon on mRNA.

Back 110

Complementary

Front 111

What is the ribosome's job in translation?

Back 111

Coordinate protein assembly

Front 112

What is a wobble?

Back 112

Flexible 3rd position on codons

Front 113

What is the job of the large ribosomal unit?

Back 113

Create P, A, & E sites

Front 114

How can proteins be altered after translation?

Back 114

Add functional groups

Front 115

What is the start codon?

Back 115

AUG

Front 116

When does transcription stop?

Back 116

When transcription bubble encounters terminator sequences

Front 117

What does RNA polymerase I do?

Back 117

Transcribes rRNA

Front 118

What does RNA polymerase II do?

Back 118

Transcribes mRNA

Front 119

What does RNA polymerase III do?

Back 119

Transcribes tRNA

Front 120

What are transcription factors?

Back 120

Proteins that act to bind RNA polymerase to the promoter and initiate transcription

Front 121

What are introns?

Back 121

Non-coding sequences

Front 122

What are exons?

Back 122

Sequences that will be translated

Front 123

What is involved in the initiation complex for translation?

Back 123

Charged tRNA, small ribosomal unit, mRNA strand

Front 124

What is involved in the elongation of translation?

Back 124

Addition of amino acids

-Charged tRNA binds to A site if anticodon is complementary to codon at the site

-Peptidyl transferase forms peptide bond

-Ribosome moves down mRNA in 5' to 3' direction

Front 125

Are there more or fewer tRNAs than codons?

Back 125

Fewer

Front 126

What are point mutations?

Back 126

Substitute one base for another

Front 127

What are nonsense mutations?

Back 127

Create stop codon

Front 128

What are frameshift mutations?

Back 128

Insertion or deletion of single base

Front 129

What can gene expression be equated to?

Back 129

Controlling transcription initiation

Front 130

What are regulatory proteins?

Back 130

Bind to DNA to block or stimulate transcription

Front 131

Why do prokaryotes control gene expression?

Back 131

In response to environment

Front 132

Why do eukaryotes control gene expression?

Back 132

To maintain homeostasis

Front 133

What is positive control?

Back 133

Increase transcription when activators bind to DNA

Front 134

What is negative control?

Back 134

Reduces transcription when repressors bind to DNA

Front 135

What are the regulatory regions called?

Back 135

Operators

Front 136

How are metabolic pathways organized in prokaryotes?

Back 136

Operons

Front 137

What happens to operons when the metabolic pathway is needed? Is no longer needed?

Back 137

Induced; repressed

Front 138

What is the lac operon?

Back 138

Contains genes for use of lactose as E source

Front 139

What are the parts of the lac operon?

Back 139

Promoter, operator, 3 genes that code for enzymes (Lac Z, Lac Y, Lac A), Lac I - gene that codes for repressor, CAP binding site

Front 140

What happens when the repressor binds to the DNA? What happens in the presence of lactose?

Back 140

Blocks transcription; inducer binds to protein and then transcription proceeds

Front 141

What is the purpose of lac operon?

Back 141

Digest lactose

No lactose = repressor

Lactose = induced to take repressor off and express lac operon

Front 142

Is lac operon expressed in presence of glucose?

Back 142

No

Front 143

Binding of __________ to CAP binding site is required for induction of lac operon.

Back 143

CAP-cAMP complex

-high glucose levels cause low cAMP levels - no induction

Front 144

Why do you need transcription factors? Where do they bind?

Back 144

Transcription initiation and proper binding of RNA polymerase to DNA; bind to promoter region

Front 145

What is restriction endonucleases?

Back 145

Enzymes that cleave DNA at specific sites

Front 146

What are the two functions of restriction enzymes?

Back 146

1. Allow form of physical mapping

2. Allow creation of recombinant DNA molecules from 2 different sources

Front 147

What is recombinant DNA?

Back 147

Vector containing foreign DNA

Front 148

What is a vector?

Back 148

A DNA vehicle carrying foreign DNA

Front 149

Where do restriction enzymes recognize DNA sequences?

Back 149

Restriction sites

Front 150

What is a palindrome?

Back 150

When a cut is at the restriction site, same sequence read 5'-3'

-staggered cuts cause "sticky ends"

-fragments cut by same enzyme can be paired

Front 151

What does DNA ligase do?

Back 151

Joins 2 fragments forming a stable DNA molecule

Front 152

What is gel electrophoresis?

Back 152

Separate DNA fragments by size, subject to electrical field, negatively charged DNA moves towards positive pole - larger move slower

Front 153

What is transformation?

Back 153

Introduction of DNA from an outside source into the cell

Front 154

What is a clone?

Back 154

A genetically identical copy

Front 155

What is molecular cloning?

Back 155

Isolation of a specific DNA sequence

Front 156

What is a common host for cloning?

Back 156

E Coli

Front 157

How do you get foreign DNA in a host cell?

Back 157

Using a vector

Front 158

What is a plasmid and what are the three parts of it?

Back 158

Small, circular, extrachromasomal DNA molecule; origin of replication, selectable marker, multiple cloning site

Front 159

What is Polymerase Chain Reaction?

Back 159

Amplify DNA using primers (forensics, genetic diseases) by denaturation, annealing primers, and DNA synthesis

Front 160

How do we create insulin?

Back 160

Pancreatic cells

Created through E coli if it is needed to be transferred

Front 161

Where does transcription start?

Back 161

Promoter - tells RNA polymerase to create mRNA

Front 162

Where does translation start?

Back 162

Upstream - uses ribosome

Front 163

Does translation or transcription terminate first?

Back 163

Translation

Front 164

Which end of the gene is by the promoter?

Back 164

5'

Front 165

T/F: All genes are regulated.

Back 165

True

Front 166

What kind of gene is turned on when you need it and off when you don't?

Back 166

Insulin

Front 167

Protein is a _______ unit.

Back 167

Functional

Front 168

What is the model system for gene regulation?

Back 168

Lac operon

Front 169

Where do you stop genes from being expressed?

Back 169

At transcription initiation - prevent proteins (RNA polymerase) from binding to DNA

Front 170

Which of your cells are not dividing?

Back 170

Brain

Front 171

Which of your cells reacts badly to chemo?

Back 171

All of them

Front 172

Does cancer chemotherapy drugs target non-dividing cells?

Back 172

No

Front 173

T/F: All of your genes are expressed at all times in cells.

Back 173

False

Front 174

T/F: Genes can be turned on or off like light switches.

Back 174

True

Front 175

What are unregulated genes termed?

Back 175

Constitutive

Front 176

T/F: Proteins bind to DNA.

Back 176

True

-RNA polymerase binds to promoter on DNA

-Lac operon binds to operator on DNA

Front 177

T/F: Proteins bind to carbohydrates.

Back 177

True

-Lactose (carb) binds to lac repressor (protein)

Front 178

T/F: Bacteria make decisions about which genes to express when.

Back 178

True

-Lac operon

Front 179

What would a small molecule inducer do to a repressor protein?

Back 179

Cause it to fall off of DNA

-repressor prevents RNA polymerase from binding to DNA

-inducer has to get it off of DNA

Front 180

T/F: Small molecule effectors induce conformational changes in proteins.

Back 180

Yes, this is allosteric regulation (bind other than active site)

Front 181

What is the process of turning on expression of a gene in response to the environment?

Back 181

Induction

Front 182

What genes are turned on by command?

Back 182

Regulated genes

Front 183

What genes are turned on by command?

Back 183

Regulated genes

Front 184

What is the overall process from genes to proteins?

Back 184

Gene expression

Front 185

What genes are turned on by command?

Back 185

Regulated genes

Front 186

What is the overall process from genes to proteins?

Back 186

Gene expression

Front 187

What is a cluster of genes with related functions with a promoter and operator?

Back 187

Operon

Front 188

What molecule turns off transcription?

Back 188

Repressor

Front 189

What molecule turns off transcription?

Back 189

Repressor

Front 190

What molecule turns off translation?

Back 190

Stop codon

Front 191

What molecule turns off transcription?

Back 191

Repressor

Front 192

What molecule turns off translation?

Back 192

Stop codon

Front 193

What are proteins that turn operons on by binding to DNA?

Back 193

Activators

Front 194

What molecule turns off transcription?

Back 194

Repressor

Front 195

What molecule turns off translation?

Back 195

Stop codon

Front 196

What are proteins that turn operons on by binding to DNA?

Back 196

Activators

Front 197

Promoters and operators are ________, not proteins.

Back 197

Pieces of DNA

Front 198

What kind of bonds are formed between 2 DNA molecules formed by DNA ligase?

Back 198

Covalent bonds

Front 199

What do restriction enzymes protect bacterial cells from when they cut DNA?

Back 199

Intruding DNA