Anatomy

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Anatomy

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studies the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

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physiology

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function of the body’s structural machinery or how all the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities

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Gross Anatomy

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study of large body structures visible to the naked eye

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regional anatomy

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all the structures in one particular region of body

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systemic anatomy

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the gross anatomy is studied system by system

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Surface anatomy

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the study of internal body structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface

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microscopic anatomy

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structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

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cytology

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study of the cells of the body

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histology

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study of the body tissue

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developmental anatomy

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traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span

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levels of structural organization

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Chemical- atoms combine to form molecules like water, sugar, and proteins

Cells – All cells have some common functions, but only certain cell types form certain tissue

Tissue – groups of cells that have a common function

Organ – composed of at least 2 tissue types

Organ system – organs that work closely with one another to accomplish a common purpose

Organism level – sum of all structural levels working together to promote life

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four types of tissue

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epithelial

muscle

connective

nervous

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metabolism

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includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells

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catabolism

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breaking substances down

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anabolism

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synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances

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responsiveness

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aka irritability – ability to sense changes to the environment and then respond to them

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movement or contractibility

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occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs

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necessary life functions (6)

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1. movement or contractibility

2. responsiveness

3. metabolism

4. growth

5. differentiation

6. reproduction

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Growth

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increase in the size of a body part or the organism

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differentiation

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a life process where cells will develop and differentiate into specialized cells that carry on certain functions of the body, taking on specialized structural and functional characteristics.

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reproduction

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responsible for producing offspring

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homeostatis

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The ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously

-oscillation around a set point

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four organic molecules

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Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acid

Carbohydrate

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three types of carbohydrates

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mono, di, and ploysaccharides

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monosaccharides

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simple sugars

glucose, fructose, galactose, DNA, RNA

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disaccharides

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simple sugar formed from two monosaccharides by dehydration

sucrose-glucose + fructose

lactose-glucose + galactose

maltose- glucose + glucose

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polysaccharides

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multiple monosaccharides joined by dehydration

glycogen

starch

cellulose

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Triglycerides

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Lipid- provide protection, insulation, and energy

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Fatty Acids

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lipid-used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to generateATP

-can be saturated or unsaturated

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phospholipid

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lipid- an important component of cell membranes

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cholesterol

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lipid/steroid- component of cell membranes, precursor of bile salts

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protein

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give structure to the body, regulate processes, provide protection, assist in musclecontraction, transport substances, and serve as enzymes

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3 divisions of the cell

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1. Plasma (cell) membrane

2. Cytoplasm-Cytosol, Organelles

3. Nucleus- Chromosomes, Genes

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parts of the cell (organelles)

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Plasma membrane, Nuclear membrane, Nucleus

Cytoplasm, Nucleolus, Chromatin(chromosomes) Smooth ER, Rough ER, Ribosomes, Golgi complex, Centrosomes and centrioles, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Cytoskeleton, Cilia, Flagella, Vacuoles, inclusions

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plasma membrane

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flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell

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nucleolus

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contains protein and RNA

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nuclear membrane

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double lipid bilayer surrounding the nucleolus

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nucleus

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contains the cell’s hereditary units,

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cytosol

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intracellular fluid portion of the cytoplasm

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smooth ER

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synthesizes lipids

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rough ER

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(studded with ribosomes) make proteins

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ribosomes

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synthesize proteins

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golgi apparatus

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transport proteins

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lysosomes

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Contain enzymes that breakdown proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.

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Peroxisomes

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contain enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize (break down) organic substances

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inclusion

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nonliving components of a cell

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phospholipid bilayer

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cell membrane functions for protection and support and allows certain materials to pass through it

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Factors affecting permeability

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the size

Charge

hydrophobicity

polarity of the molecule trying to permeate the membrane (polar or non-polar)

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concentration gradient

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the difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other

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Electrical gradient

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the difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma membrane and the other

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passive transport across cell membrane (3)

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Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

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active transport (processess) across cell membrane (2)

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Active transport

Vesicular transport

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factors affecting diffusion (passive) (5)

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1. Steepness of the concentration gradient

2. Temperature

3. Mass of diffusion substance

4. Surface area

5. Diffusion distance

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Facilitated Diffusion

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Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are too polar or too highly charged move through the lipid bilayer

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two types of facilitated diffusion

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Channel mediated facilitated diffusion

Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

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osmosis

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The net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

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3 types of tonicity

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solution /what happens to the cell (RBC)

isotonic /nothing

hypotonic /hemolysis

hypertonic /crenation

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primary active transport

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transporter protein which pumps a substance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient

requires ATP

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secondary active transport

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Energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient) is used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradients

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exocytosis

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Secretes substances outside of the cell.

( memory hint ex -->exit)

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endocytosis

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Takes material into the cell.

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two types of endocytosis

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1. phagocytosis (“cellular eating”), a cell engulfs a particle and packages it within a food vacuole.

2. pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”), a cell “gulps” droplets of fluid by forming tiny vesicles.

(memory hint--> i like to DRINK Pino)

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transcytosis

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combination of endocytosis and exocytosis used to move substances from one side of a cell, across it, and out the other side

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enzyme

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lower activation energy (Ea)

protein

site specific

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Activation Energy (Ea)

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Is the energy that triggers a chemical reaction to proceed (breaks bonds)

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factors affecting enzyme function

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pH

temperature

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ATP catabolism

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ATP --> ADP + (P + energy)

ADP= adenosine diphosphate

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ATP anabolism

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ADP + P --> ATP

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carbohydrate metabolism is needed for (4)

(glucose metabolism)

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1. ATP production

2.Amino acid synthesis

3.Glycogen synthesis

4.Triglyceride synthesis

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what happens to pyruvic acid if oxygen isn't present in carbohydrate metabolism? (anaerobic conditions)

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form lactic acid

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what happens to pyruvic acid if oxygen is present in carbohydrate metabolism? (aerobic conditions)

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form acetyl coenzyme A

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where does the krebs cycle take place?

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matrix of the mitochondria

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chemiosmosis

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electron transport chain -mechanism links chemical reactions with the pumping of hydrogen ions

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How many molecules of ATP is produced through cellular respiration

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30 or 32 for each molecule of glucose

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Lipid Metabolism

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must be transported with proteins

lipoprotein

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four classes of lipoprotein

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1.Chylomicrons

2.Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)

3.Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

4. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

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chylomicrons

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transport dietary lipids to adipose tissue

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very-low-density lipoprotein

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transport triglycerides from hepatocytes to adipocytes

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low-density lipoproteins

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carry about 75% of the total cholesterol in blood and deliver it to cells

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high-desnity lipoproteins

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remove excess cholesterol from body cells and the blood and transport it to the liver for elimination

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what is cholesterol synthesized by?

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hepatocytes

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where are lipids stored?

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adipose tissue

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lipolysis

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the process of splitting triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.

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lipogenesis

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the process of synthesizing lipids from glucose or amino acids. It occurs when individuals consume more calories then needed.

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what happens in protein metabolism

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protein broken down into amino acids that are oxidized to produce ATP or used to synthesize new proteins.

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6 types of proteins

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structural

regulatory

contractile

immunological

transport

catalytic

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2 types of nucleic acids

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DNA
RNA

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DNA bases

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A G T C

T-A

G-C

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RNA bases

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AGUC