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240 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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heredity
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The Inheritance of genetic information during reproduction.
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variation
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Difference in inheritance
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genetics
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The study of Inheritance
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gene
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A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA.
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asexual reproduction
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A type of reproduction with one sole parent making an exact coping of itself to make an offspring.
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clone
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The exact copying of an organism, a result of asexual reproduction.
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sexual reproduction
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A type of reproduction where two parents' DNA are combined in an offspring.
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life cycle
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The generation-to-generation sequences of stages in the reproductive history of an organism.
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somatic cell
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All the other cells except from the sperm and Ovum.
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karyotype
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An arrangement of chromosomes in pairs in order of size.
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homologous chromosomes
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A pair of chromosomes that have the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern adn carry genes that control the same inherited character.
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sex chromosomes
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Chromosomes whose pattern of in heritance determines an individual's sex. Males XY and Females XX
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autosomes
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The other 22 pair of chromosomes apart from sex chromosomes
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gametes
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Sperm Cell or the Ova. They are haploids
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haploid cell
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A Cell with one set of chromosomes.
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fertilization
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The fusion of two gametes (sperm and ovum) to produce a zygote that develops into a new individual with a genetic heritage derived from both parents.
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syngamy
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The fusing of cells during fertilization.
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diploid cells
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Cells with two sets of chromosomes.
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meiosis
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Cell division in which the chromosomes replicate, followed by two nuclear divisions. Each of the resulting gametes (in animals, spores in plants) receives a haploid set of chromosomes.
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alternation of generations
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A a second type of life cycle posessed by some plants and algae.
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sporophyte
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The multicellular diploid stage of an alternation of generation life cycle.
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spores
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A product of meiosis in the sphorophyte which developes into the multicellular haploid stage of an alternation of generation life cycle.
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gametophyte
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The multicellular haploid stage of an alternation of generation life cycle.
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meiosis I
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The first division of meiosis that separates homologous chromosomes.
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meiosis II
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The second division of meiosis that seperates sister chromatids.
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synapsis
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The alignment of chromosomes during meiosis I so that each chromosome is beside its homologue.
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tetrad
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A group of four chromatids that a visible in prophase I of Meiosis.
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chiasmata
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Holds sister chromatids together in tetrads
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crossing over
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During the first meiotic prophase, the process in which part of a chromatid is physically exchanged with another chromatid to form chromosomes with new allele combinations.
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Locus
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The specific location of a gene on a chromosome.
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character
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A heritable feature.
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trait
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A variant for a character such as flower color.
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true-breeding
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Occurs when self-fertilization gives rise to the same traits in all offspring, generation after generation.
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hybridization
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The mating or crossing of two varieties.
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monohybrid cross
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A cross that tracs the inheritance of a single character.
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P generation
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The True-breeding parents during hybridization.
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F1 generation
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The hybrid offspring of the P generation.
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F2 generation
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The generation formed when the F1 generation is allowed to self-pollinate.
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alleles
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Alternative versions of a gene.
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dominant allele
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Refers to an allele of a gene that is always expressed in heterozygotes
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recessive allele
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Refers to an allele of a gene that is expressed when the dominant allele is not present.
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law of segregation
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The two alleles for a character are separated during the formation of gametes.
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homozygous
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Having identical alleles for a given gene.
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heterozygous
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Having two different alleles (one dominant, one recessive) of a gene pair.
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phenotype
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The observed properties or outward appearance of a trait. The physical expression of the alleles posessed by an organism.
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genotype
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The genetic (alleleic) makeup of an organism with regard to an observed trait.
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dihybrid cross
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In genetics, a cross that involves two sets of characteristics.
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law of independent assortment
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The Independent segregation of each apir pair of alleles during gamete formation.
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assortment
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A way in which meiosis produces new combinations of genetic information. Paternal and maternal chromosomes line up randomly during synapsis, so each daughter cell is likely to receive an assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes rather than a complete set from either.
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incomplete dominance
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A type of inheritance in which the heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate to those of the homozygous parents.
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complete dominance
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The type of inheritance in which both heterozygotes and dominant homozygotes have the same phenotype
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codominance
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A type of inheritance in which heterozygotes fully express both alleles.
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pleiotropy
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The ability of a gene to affect more than one phenotypic character.
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epistasis
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a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus.
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polygenic inheritance
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the additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.
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pedigree
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A tool used to analyze phenotypic presence in a family before it is put on a family tree.
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carriers
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The heterozygotes who are normal but have a chance of passing on the disease to their offsprings.
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cystic fibrosis
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An autosomal recessive genetic disorder that causes the production of mucus that clogs the airways of the lungs and the ducts of the pancreas and other secretory glands.
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Tay-Sachs disease
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Another lethal recessive disorder.
It is caused by a dysfunctional enzyme that fails to break down specific brain lipids. |
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sickle-cell disease
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Human autosomal recessive disease that causes production of abnormal red blood cells that collapse (or sickle) and cause circulatory problems.
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Huntington’s disease
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A progressive and fatal disorder of the nervous system that develops between the ages of 30 and 50 years; caused by an expansion of a trinucleotide repeat and inherited as a dominant trait.
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amniocentesis
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can be used from the 14th to 16th week of pregnancy to assess whether the fetus has a specific disease.
Fetal cells extracted from amniotic fluid are cultured and karyotyped to identify some disorders. |
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chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
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allows faster karyotyping and can be performed as early as the eighth to tenth week of pregnancy.
This technique extracts a sample of fetal tissue from the chorionic villi of the placenta. |
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chromosomal theory of inheritance
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Mendelian genes have specific loci on chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment.
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wild type
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The normal phenotype for a character.
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mutant phenotypes
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Traits that are alternative versions of to the wild type.
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sex-linked genes
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Genes located on a sex chromosome.
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linked genes
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Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together.
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parental types
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Offsprings with phenotypes that match the original P parents.
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recombinants
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Offsprings with new combinations of parental traits, and they don't look like either parent.
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genetic map
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An ordered list of genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
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linkage map
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A genetic map based on recombination frequencies and is not really a picture of the chromosome.
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Duchenne muscular dystrophy
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A Sex-linked disorder that affects males, characterized by a progressive weakening of the muscles and a loss of coordination.
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Hemophilia
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A sex-linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more proteins required for blood clotting.
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Barr body
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formed during female development, when one X chromosome per cell condenses into a compact object.
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nondisjunction
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occurs when problems with the meiotic spindle cause errors in daughter cells.
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aneuploidy
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Offspring having an abnormal chromosome number resulting from fertilization of a normal gamete with one produced by nondisjunction.
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trisomic Cells
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Cells that have three copies of a particular chromosome type and have 2n + 1 total chromosomes.
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monosomic
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Cells that have only one copy of a particular chromosome type and have 2n − 1 chromosomes.
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polyploidy
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A condition where an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes
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deletion
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Occurs when a chromosome fragment lacking a centromere is lost during cell division.
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duplication
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Occurs when a fragment becomes attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid.
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inversion
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Occurs when a chromosomal fragment reattaches to the original chromosome, but in the reverse orientation.
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translocation
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A chromosomal fragment joins a nonhomologous chromosome.
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Down syndrome
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Is due to three copies of chromosome 21 or trisomy 21.
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genomic imprinting
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Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
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fragile X syndrome
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A hereditary Mental disorder, partially explained by genomic imprinting and the addition of nucleotides to a triplet repeat near the end of an X chromosome.
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transformation
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a change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of foreign DNA by a cell.
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bacteriophages
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Viruses that specifically attack bacteria.
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double helix
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The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjecent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.
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semiconservative model
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A model of DNA in which the two strands of the parental molecule separate, and each functions as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand.
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origins of replication
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Special sites at which DNA replication begins.
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replication fork
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A Y shaped point on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
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DNA polymerases
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An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork.
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leading strand
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The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5’ to 3’ direction.
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lagging strand
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A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates in direction away from the replication fork.
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DNA ligase
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A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
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primer
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The initial nucleotide chain to which DNA nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis.
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primase
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An RNA polymerase, that links ribonucleotides that are complementary to the DNA template into the primer.
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helicase
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Untwists the double helix and separates the template DNA strands at the replication fork.
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mismatch repair
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Special enzymes fix incorrectly paired nucleotides.
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nuclease
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Cuts out a segment of a damaged strand.
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excision repair
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A nuclease cuts out a segment of a damaged strand.
DNA polymerase and ligase fill in the gap. |
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telomeres
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The ends of eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules
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telomerase
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Catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells, restoring their original length.
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one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
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Th idea that each polypeptide is specified by its own gene.
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transcription
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A DNA strand provides a template for the synthesis of a complementary RNA strand. The site of transcription is the nucleus.
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messenger RNA (mRNA), translation
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The synthesis of a polypepetide using the genetic information encoded in the mRNA molecule.The site of translation is the ribosome
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RNA processing
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yields the finished mRNA from the primary transcript.
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triplet code
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Three consecutive bases specify an amino acid, creating 43 (64) possible code words.
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template strand
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During transcription, it provides a template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript.
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codons
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The mRNA base triplets, and they are written in the 5' to 3’ direction.
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reading frame
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subsequent codons are read in groups of three nucleotides.
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RNA polymerase
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Separates the DNA strands at the appropriate point and bonds the RNA nucleotides as they base-pair along the DNA template.
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transcription unit
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The stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule.
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promoter
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The site where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription.
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transcription factors
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Proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.
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transcription initiation complex
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The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter.
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TATA box
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A crucial promoter DNA sequence.
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terminator
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The sequence that signals the end of transcription.
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5’ cap
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Formed by capping off the 5' end with modified form of guanine. The 5' cap helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes and also acts as an "attach here" sign for ribosomes when mRNA reaches the cytoplasm.
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poly(A) tail
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Formed by modifying the 3' end before the message exits the nulceus.The poly(A)tail protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes and helps ribosomes attach to it.
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RNA splicing
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The removal of a large portion of the RNA molecule in a cut-and-paste job
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introns
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the noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between the coding regions.
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exons
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The regions that are eventually expressed or translated into amino acid sequences.
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ribozymes
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RNA molecules that function as enzymes.
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transfer RNA (tRNA)
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The interpreter in the process of translation, which transfers amino acids from the cytoplasmic pool to a ribosome.
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anticodon
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A nucleotide triplet which binds, accroding to the base-pairing rules to a complementary codon on mRNA.
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ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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The most abundant RNA in the cell. Together with proteins,it forms the structure of ribosomes that coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to the series of mRNA codons.
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P site
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The Peptidyl site and holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
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A site
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The Aminoacy site and carries the tRNA with the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
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initiation
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The first stage of translation. It brings together mRNA, a tRNA bearing the first amino acid of the polypeptide, and the two subunits
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elongation
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The second stage of translation. Amino acids are added one by one to the first amino acid. It occurs in a three step cycle.
1)Codon recognition 2)Peptide bond formation 3)Translocation. |
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termination
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The final step of translation. Occurs when one of the three stop codons reaches the A site.
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polyribosomes
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Many ribosomes trailing along the same mRNA and occurs once a ribosome moves past the initiation codon.
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mutations
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changes in the genetic material of a cell (or virus).
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point mutations
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A chemical change in just one base pair of a gene.
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substitutions
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Replacement of nucleotides with other nucleotides.
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base-pair substitution
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A point mutation that results in the replacement of a pair of complementary nucleotides with another nucleotide.
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missense mutation
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The mutation that still codes for an amino acid but a different one.
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nonsense mutation
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Change an amino acid codon into a stop codon, nearly always leading to a nonfunctional protein.
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insertion, deletion
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Are additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene.
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frameshift mutation
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Occurs when insertion or deletion mutations do not occur in multiples of three
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mutagens
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Chemical or physical agents that interact with DNA to cause mutations
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capsid
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The protein shell enclosing the viral genome.
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viral envelopes
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Membranous envelope surrounds the capsids of flu viruses.
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lysogenic cycle
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Where the phage genome replicates without destroying the host cell.
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host range
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Range in which a virus can infect and parasitize its host.
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lytic cycle
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Where the phage reproductive cycle culminates in the death of the host.
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virulent virus
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A virus that reproduce only by a lytic cycle.
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temperate viruses
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like phage lambda, use both lytic and lysogenic cycles.
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prophage
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A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
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provirus
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Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
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retrovirus
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An RNA virus that reproduce by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; and important class of cancer causing viruses.
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reverse transcriptase
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Used by retroviiruses to transcribe DNA from an RNA template.
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vaccines
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Harmless variants or derivatives of pathogenic microbes that stimulate the immune system to mount defenses against the actual pathogen.
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viroids
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Smaller and simpler than even viruses, consist of tiny molecules of naked circular RNA that infect plants.
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prions
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Infectious proteins that spread disease.
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nucleiod
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A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
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transformation
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The alteration of a bacterial cell’s genotype by the uptake of naked, foreign DNA from the surrounding environment.
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transduction
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occurs when a phage carries bacterial genes from one host cell to another as a result of aberrations in the phage reproductive cycle.
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conjugation
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Transfers genetic material between two bacterial cells that are temporarily joined. The male donates and the female accepts
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F factor
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A fertility factor in bacteria, a DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient.
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plasmid
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Are small, circular, self-replicating DNA molecules.
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F plasmid
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Consists of about 25 genes, most required for the production of sex pili.
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R plasmids
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carries the genes conferring resistance and also have genes that encode for sex pili.
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transposon
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A mobile segment of DNA that serves as an agent of genetic change.
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operator
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A segement of DNA that acts as an off and on switch in transcription.
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operon
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A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
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repressor
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A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
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regulatory gene
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A gene that produces repressors.
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corepressor
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A small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch an operon off.
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inducer
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A specific small molecule that inactivates a repressor.
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histones
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Proteins are responsible for the first level of DNA packaging.
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nucleosome
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The basic unit of DNA packing.
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heterochromatin
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Highly condensed areas in chromosomes. Appear in interphase
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euchromatin
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Less compacted areas in chromosomes. Appear in interphase
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repetitive DNA
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Nucleotide sequences, usually noncoding, that are present in many copies in a eukaryotic genome.
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plasmid
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Are small, circular, self-replicating DNA molecules.
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F plasmid
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Consists of about 25 genes, most required for the production of sex pili.
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R plasmids
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carries the genes conferring resistance and also have genes that encode for sex pili.
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transposon
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A mobile segment of DNA that serves as an agent of genetic change.
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operator
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A segement of DNA that acts as an off and on switch in transcription.
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operon
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A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
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repressor
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A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
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regulatory gene
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A gene that produces repressors.
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corepressor
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A small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch an operon off.
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inducer
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A specific small molecule that inactivates a repressor.
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histones
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Proteins are responsible for the first level of DNA packaging.
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nucleosome
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The basic unit of DNA packing.
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heterochromatin
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Highly condensed areas in chromosomes. Appear in interphase
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euchromatin
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Less compacted areas in chromosomes. Appear in interphase
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repetitive DNA
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Nucleotide sequences, usually noncoding, that are present in many copies in a eukaryotic genome.
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oncogenes
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Cancer-causing genes.
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proto-oncognes
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Close counterparts of oncogenes
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tumor- suppressor genes
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Its normal products inhibit cell division, also contribute to cancer.
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recombinant DNA
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A DNA molecule made in vitro with segements from different sources.
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biotechnology
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The manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products.
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restriction enzymes
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A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA that is foreign to a bacterium.
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restriction site
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A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized by the restriction enzyme as the "cut site."
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restriction fragments
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Same sets of DNA produced after coping DNA.
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sticky end
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The single stranded ends of restriction fragments that forms hydrogen bonds with other restriction fragments.
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DNA ligase
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Makes DNA fusions can be made permanent.
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cloning vector
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A DNA molecule that can carry foreign DNA into a cell and replicate there
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nucleic acid hybridization
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One technique technique used in sorting out DNA which depends on base-pairing between the gene and a complementary sequence, a nucleic acid probe, on another nucleic acid molecule.
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nucleic acid probe
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In DNA technology,a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid molecule used to tag a specific nucleotide sequence in a nucleic acid sample.
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complementary DNA (cDNA)
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double-stranded DNA modified by the addition of restriction sites at each end.
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polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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Quickly amplify any piece of DNA without using cells.
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gel electrophoresis
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Indirect method of rapidly analyzing and comparing genomes by separating macromolecules—nucleic acids or proteins—on the basis of their rate of movement through a gel in an electrical field.
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restriction length polymorphisms (RFLP’s)
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Serves as a genetic marker for a particular location (locus) in the genome.
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Human Genome Project
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The project to completely sequence human DNA.
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DNA sequencing
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The mapping out of DNA patterns.
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genomics
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The field based on comparisons among whole sets of genes and their interactions.
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complementary DNA (cDNA)
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double-stranded DNA modified by the addition of restriction sites at each end.
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polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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Quickly amplify any piece of DNA without using cells.
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gel electrophoresis
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Indirect method of rapidly analyzing and comparing genomes by separating macromolecules—nucleic acids or proteins—on the basis of their rate of movement through a gel in an electrical field.
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restriction length polymorphisms (RFLP’s)
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Serves as a genetic marker for a particular location (locus) in the genome.
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Human Genome Project
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The project to completely sequence human DNA.
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DNA fingerprint
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DNA fingerprints can be used forensically to present evidence to juries in murder trials.
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DNA sequencing
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The mapping out of DNA patterns.
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genomics
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The field based on comparisons among whole sets of genes and their interactions.
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transgenic organisms
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Organisms capable of accepting foreign DNA.
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DNA fingerprint
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DNA fingerprints can be used forensically to present evidence to juries in murder trials.
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transgenic organisms
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Organisms capable of accepting foreign DNA.
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cell differentiation
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When cells become specialized in structure and function,
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cell differentiation
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When cells become specialized in structure and function,
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morphogenesis
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The “creation of form.”
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morphogenesis
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The “creation of form.”
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apical meristems
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perpetually embryonic regions in the tips of shoots and roots, are responsible for the plant’s continual growth and formation of new organs, such as leaves and roots.
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totipotent
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The ability to give rise to differentiated cells of any type.
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apical meristems
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perpetually embryonic regions in the tips of shoots and roots, are responsible for the plant’s continual growth and formation of new organs, such as leaves and roots.
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totipotent
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The ability to give rise to differentiated cells of any type.
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determination
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Molecular changes in the embryo which leads up to observable differentiation of a cell.
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cytoplasmic determinants
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Maternal substances that influence the course of early development.
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determination
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Molecular changes in the embryo which leads up to observable differentiation of a cell.
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cytoplasmic determinants
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Maternal substances that influence the course of early development.
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induction
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Triggering observable cellular changes by causing a change in gene expression in the target cell.
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homeotic genes
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A master regulatory gene that control the anatomical identity of the segments
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homeobox
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Specifies a 60-amino-acid homeodomain.
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apoptosis
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Programmed cell death
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