Biology

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Potential Energy

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Stored Energy

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Kinetic Energy

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Energy of movement

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Anabolic Reaction

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reactions that link simple molecules together to make complex molecules

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catabolic reaction

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reactions that break down complex molecules into simpler ones

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enzymes

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a catalyst of any substance that speeds up chemical reactions without itself being used up, mostly biological catalyst, they bind specific substrates and at a particular site, they are highly specific

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reduction

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a gain of one or more electrons or hydrogen atoms

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oxidation

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a loss of one more electrons or hydrogen atoms

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somatic mutation

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passed during mitosis, cells that have these mutations never become gametes, not passed onto future generation

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germ line mutation

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occur in cells that will become gametes

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conditional mutants

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some mutations exert their effects only under certain restrictive conditions

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point mutation

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result from adding or subtracting of a nucleotide base of the substitution of one base for another, occurs as a result of mistakes during DNA replication, or environmental

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silent mutation

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result no change in any amino acid sequence of the protein

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missense mutation

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cause amino acid substitution, reduce the functioning of protein or disable it

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nonsense mutation

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base subsitution that cause a change from a codon that instructs the incorporation of an amino acid to a codon that terminates translation

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frame shift mutation

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single base is inserted or deleted, shifting the code

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chromosomal mutation

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DNA breaks and reforms
four types:
deletion
duplication
inversions
translocation

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deletion mutation

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lost of chromosomal segments

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duplication

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repeats of a segment

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inversion

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segment breaks off and reinsert itself the opposite orientation

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translocation

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a portion of one chromosome attaches to a different chromosome

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induced mutation

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permanent mutation caused by outside agents

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final products of aerobic respiration

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6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 CO2
1 GTP

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mendel's first law

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Law of Segregation
when fertilization occurs the pairs are reestablished by receiving one copy of allele from each parent

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mendel's second law

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Law of Independent assortment
Ss alleles sort into gametes independently of the Yy. the gametes of the dihybrids have on allele of each gene. four different gametes are possible

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phenotype

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physical appearance of an organism

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genotype

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actual composition of an organims alleles for a gene

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exon

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introns are interspersed with the coding regions

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intron

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noncoding regions

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hypersensitivity

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immune system overreact to a dose of antigen, over hours of exposure, too much IgE is produced, releases histamines, t-cells are involved

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autoimmunity

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when clonal deletion fail, forbidden clones are made

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HIV

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virus that leads to AIDs

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AIDs

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depletion of helper t cells, transmitted through blood or body fluids, causing tH cells to drop

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T cells

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migrate to the thymus where they mature, releases cytokine, able to detect agents within a cell
cytotoxic: recognizes virus-infected cells causing them to lyse
Helper: encourages t cells and b cells to divide

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B cells

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circulate and collect in the lymph nodes, secretes antibodies, recognizes a certain shape of composition

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Plasma

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made from B cells

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cytokines

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proteins release by t cells, bind to alter the behavior of their target cells

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complement protein

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antimicrobial proteins, causes fluid to enter these foreign cells to cause them to burst

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interferons

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produced by cells that are infected by a virus, increases the resistance of neighboring cells to infections

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deuterostomes

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large mouth, 6 pairs of external gills, segmented posterior body section, gills lost, lungs developed, three part coelom, ciliated larvae, bilateral symmetry
2 groups:
echinoderms/hemichordates
chordates

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ecdysozoans

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wormlike bodies, thick flexible exoskeletons aka cuticles, worms

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changes from water to land

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evolution of the lung like sacs set the stage for organism to move onto land, aloowing them to breathe air and leave water temporary, changes in fin structure allowed fish to move onto land, fish evolved into amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals

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amniotic egg

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shells made out of calcium and prevent the evaporation of fluids inside yet allows oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass, allows the embryo to reach advance stages before hatching