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603 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Plants store most of their energy as?
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Startch
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Secondary protein structure is
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the coiling of folding of the polypeptide backbone
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All living things are composed of
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C, H, N, O, S, P
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Cellular Respiration occurs within the
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mitochondria
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Pores in the nuclear envelope serve which purposes?
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allows proteins to move into nucleus, allows ribosomal components to exit nucleus, allows mRna to exit nucleus
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Mollusca
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Kingdom- Secretes Calcium Carbonate Exoskeleton. Clams, Snails, Squids, slugs, octopus
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Planaria
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Flatworms-Move by contraction of longitudinal and circular layers of muscles against a hydrostatic skeleton
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Glucocorticoids are derived from
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cholesterol
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Paramecium
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uses a contractile vacoule to pump water out
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agonistic display
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Signals communication. Dog wagging tail or antagonistic bares teeth and erects ear. (communication when two animals fight over food source)
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Bryophyta
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few specialized organs, simple plants, lack xylem, live in moist places. mosses and liverworts and hornworts
dominate gametophyte generation |
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Chemosynthetic bateria oxidize which element to harvest energy for glucose
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sulfur
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Intraspecific Interactions
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Behavioral displays, pecking order, territoriality, response to chemicals (pheromones)
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Primitive eukaryotes such as Euglena, have both plant and animal like characteristics. they are classified as. paramecium and green algae
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Protista
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Small local population of a species that is closely related to each other more so than the whole species becuase of inbreeding
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deme
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Rise of water in xylem
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Transpirational pull, capillary action, root pressure
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Phototropism and geotropism in plants result from which hormone
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Auxins
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Area of leave that contains elongated cells with chlorplasts spread over large surface
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palisade layer
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Major difference in prokaryote and eukaryote
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prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane (or other membrane bound organelles)
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a sex linked lethal recessive trait
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will only cause death in males
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What stage of protein synthesis requires ATP
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Elongation
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Higher DNA melting point
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Higher G-C content
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Translation
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mRNA first binds to small subunit, goes from free amino end to free carboxyl end, can use more than one ribosome
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retrovirus
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synthesize dna from rna
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genetic code
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nucleotide triplets that code for A.A.
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recombinant DNA
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dna molecules that contain dna from more than 1 animal
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nucleotide
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deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group
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Homologous chromosome line up in..
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meiosis, this is what allows crossing over to occur
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Plants alternation of generations
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diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores (cells that prevent loss of h2o)
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Meristem cells
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source of cells that can develop into an adult plant. undifferentiated plant "Stem cells" found in growth areas
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translation
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mrna to Amino acid sequence
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posterior pituitary hormones
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oxitocin and adh(vasopressin)
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ligaments
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bone to bone
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tendons
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bone to muscle
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origin
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point of attatchment to stationary bone
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insertion
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point of attatchment to movable bone
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respiration in earthworms
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co2 diffusing directly through skin (bc of mucous layer)
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operant conditioning
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behavior causes a reward (or punishment) to promote reinforcement
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classical conditioning
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pavlov- pair an autonomic response with a stimuli. form an association between two stimuli
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mutualism
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both benefit, tick bird and rhino, bacteria and termite
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analogous structures
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similar in structure but not in origin
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protobionts
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droplets that are different from their environment. hypothesis of life. first organic monomers, then polymers, then protobionts
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endosymbiotic theory
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mitochondria and chloroplasts came from prokarytic symbionts (bacteria that the cell took in for symbiosis)
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animals in genera Ascaris and turbatrix unique movements quality...
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longitudinal muscles only
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inducible system
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is off unless a molecule (inducer) is present to turn on
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repressible system
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is on unless a molecule (corepressor) is present to turn the repressor on
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oxidative phosphorylation
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ultimate electron acceptor is h20
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prophase
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second phase- chromosomes condense and spindles form.visible chromosomes, nuclear envelop disintegrates
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interphase
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first phase- 90% of time- chromosomes replicate into sister chromosomes attatched by centromere
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metaphase
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third phase- chromosomes align
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anaphase
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fourth phase- sister chromosomes separate
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telophase
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fifth phase- new nuclear membrane forms and nucleolus reappears
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cytokinesis
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sixth phase- cleavage furrow forms and it pinches off
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desert
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10 inches of rain or less, shrubs, cacti, succulents
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taiga
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coniferous forrest, spruce, fir, and pine. cool summers and cold winters
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temperate forest
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cold winter, warm summer, broad leaf deciduous forest. north carolina
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tundra
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frozen plain, low shrubby or matlike vegetation
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grassland
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10-30 inches of rain. no shelter. animals run fast
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tropical rain forest
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high temp and high rainfall. has epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants)
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coniferous forest
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cold and dry- needle shaped trees- fir, pine, spruce
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polar
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frozen, no vegetation
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intertidal zone
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marine- area exposed at low tide
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littoral zone
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marine- region on continental shelf
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pelagic zone
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marine- open sea. has photic (where sun penetrates 250-600 feet) and aphotic zone
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centrioles
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form spindle fibers during cell division
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Interphase
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G1- cells gain size
s- dna synthesis g2- grow a bit more and get ready to divide |
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M phase
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mitosis Pro, Met, Ana, Telo
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fungi
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unicellular and multicellular. mushroom
NOT prokaryotic, contain chlorophyll, called hyphae at unicellular stages. |
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what limits the size of a cell
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balance of surface area to volume
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what structure do eukaryotes have that prokaryotes dont?
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mitochondira
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Structure/molecules found in nucleus
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nucleolus, trna, chromatin
NOT microtubule |
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Cellular respiration involves
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breakdown of glucose molecules to produce energy in the form of ATP molecules
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Ferns are
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vascular and reproduce by spores
pterophytes |
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When a toxin enters the food chain, it usually...
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becomes more and more concentrated as it moves up the food chain
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In glucose degredation
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Oxygen is not needed for atp synthesis, but oxygen is the final electron acceptor in electron transport chain
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female reproductive parts of plant
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stigma, style, pistil, ovules
NOT anther |
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aneuploidy
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irregular number of chromosomes, can come from failures in meiosis one or meiosis 2
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open circulatory system
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snails (mollusks) and spiders (arthropods) have them
hydra and jellyfish (cnidarian) DONT |
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hydrostatic skeleton
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planaria (flatworms), annelids (earthworms), snails (mollusks), echinoderm (starfish) and cnidarians (jellyfish)
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pancreas produces
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amylase(startches) and trypsin (protein) breakdown
alpha-glucagon beta-insulin |
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Arthropod excretion
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spiders, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp- stores uric acid in malphigian tubules and secretes solid uric acid (to gut) to rid nitrogenous waste. CO2 release though spiracles. (holes in trachea)
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habituation
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loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli
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imprinting
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learning interacts with innate behavior. ducks follow human
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protozoa in the gut on termites
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mutualism- protozoa helps digest wood
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first genetic material was probably
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RNA polymer
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darwin theory of evolution
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constant struggle, reproduce faster than environment supports, heritable variations
NOT you pass on characteristics |
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cnidarian reproduction
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hydra go through medusosid stage. if environment is good it will bud, if not (medusea) it reproduces sexually
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monogenea and trematoda
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flukes- parasites that attach with a sucker. alternating reproductive between sexual and asexual
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amplify sound energy
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ossicles
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air during inhalation
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pharynx- larynx- trachea- bronchi-bronchioles- alveoli
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calvin cycles turns to make a glucose
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6
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morula
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solid ball of cells
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monotreme
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mammal that lays eggs. platypus or spiny anteater (echidnas)
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chitin
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polysacharride containing glucose molecules with nitrogen groups attached. polymer of amino sugars. cell wall of many fungi have it
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thyroid gland
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iodine- secretes calcitonin- t3 and t4. triiodothyronine and thyroxin
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angiosperms
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have double fertilization of the egg nucleus and the central nucleus. one sperm fertilizes the egg to form 2N zygote. other sperm fertilizes the 2 haploid central nuclei forming a 3N endosperm nucleus that is nutritive tissue
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glycolysis
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is the single metabolic pathway that will occur in all living cells
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indeterminate cleavage
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produces identical twins
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adenylyl cyclase is inactive unitll which hormone binds
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epinephrine
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darwinian fitness
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contribution that an individual will make to gene pool of next generation. (fertile offspring ect)
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attenuated vaccine
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contains a version of the living microbe that has been weakened or modified in the lab
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fish urine
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-freshwater fish rarely drink and have dilute urine, also actively absorb salt
-saltwater fish drink constantly, rarely urinate and excrete salt from gills |
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sarcoma
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only occur in CT
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carcinoma
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occurs in epithelial tissue
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satellite dna
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concentrated at centromeres and at ends of chromosomes
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is S-35 a suitable tracer for nucleic acid meatbolism
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no-dna doesnt contain an S
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yolk
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concentrated at vegetal pole and least concentrated at animal pole
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gray crescent
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establishes the body axis. area located on the side of the egg opposite sperm penetration
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gymnosperms
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pines, spruces, firs- "naked seeds", after the unenclosed condition of their seeds
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dominant stage of life cycle of mosses
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gametophyte(haploid)
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angiosperms
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oaks, maples, grasses-angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; they are fruiting plants, although more commonly referred to as flowering plants.
seperated into monocots ( narrow leaves like grasses, have parallel leaf veins) and dicots (broad leaves like shrubs, have netlike leaf veins) |
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life cycle of land plants
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can demonstrate alternation of generations
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amount of leukocytes
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most - neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophil, basophil - least
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isomerase
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enzyme that helps turn it to an isomer
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opening of the archenteron (primitive gut) in the gastrula that becomes the anus in deuterostomes and mouth in protosomes
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blastopore
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Ponds and Lakes in seasons
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summer- bottom is nutrient rich while top is O2 rich.
Spring and autumn- turnover occurs- and it switches |
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ecological succession
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area in a community replaces another. sand dunes become woodlands, ponds become grassland to desert
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plant gametangia (where gametes are produced)
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eggs in archegonia and males are antheridia
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organisms that consume dead or decaying organic matter
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detritivores
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chaparral
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dense spiny shrubs. california scrublands
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centrifuge cell lysis
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nuclei sediments first
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stress on bones
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osteoblasts deposit collagen and release calcium phosphate to strengthen bone. hydroxapetite is produced
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desmosome
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where there is alot of mechanical action. strenghten cell adhesion and allows for strong epithelial sheets
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trisomy
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downs syndrome, edward syndrome, klinefelters
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monosomy
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turners syndrome
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karyotyping
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takes place during metaphase when all chromosomes are condensed and easy to see
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prokaryotes lack
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mitochondria, golgi bodies, ER, nucleus and lysosomes
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prokaryotes have
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ribosomes, nucleic acids, plasma membrane, nucleoid
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spermatid
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haploid cells that can differentiate into mature sperm cells. sertoli cells aid this by nutrient transformation
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undifferentiated cambrium tissue
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develops phloem (carries organic nutrients (known as photosynthate), in particular, sucrose, a sugar, to all parts of the plant where needed-DOWN) and xylem ( transport water, but it also transports some nutrients through the plant -UP)
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plants lacking vascular tissue
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non-tracheophytes. simple plants
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nucleoside
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sugar and base
if you add a phosphate group its a nucleotide |
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platelets arise from
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large multinucleated cells from red marrow called megakaryocytes
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gibberellins
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plant hormone that induce flowering and stem elongation
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ethylene
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in plants stimulate fruit ripening
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abscisic acid
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inhibitor of plant hormones
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cytokinins
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plant hormone that promotes cell division
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peroxisomes
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microbodies- convert H2O2 into h2O and O2
also help break down fatty acids |
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collagen
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triple helix, in extracellular matrix
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gluconeogenesis
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is not exactly glycolysis in reverse
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blue green algea
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prokaryotes from kingdom monera
have cell walls |
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prokaryote reproduce by
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binary fission
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the most accurate way to work out molecular structure
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x-ray diffraction
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peptidoglycans
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macromolecules found in prokaryotes only
-made of sugars and amino acids |
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viruses
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that infect bacteria bind to Teichoic Acid chains as a means of cell attatchment
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birth control pills
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trick body to thinking its pregnant-estrogen and progestin
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adrenal hormone
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cortex- aldosterone and cortisol
medulla- epi and norepi |
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fungi
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eukaryotic heterotrophs, secrete digestive enzyme then absorb soluble products, composed of filaments called hyphae (plural mycelium), reproduce both sexualy and asexually, haploid state predominates but do alternate, saprophtic (eats dead matter) and living (athletes foot), immotile, have cell walls, more similar to human cells than bacteria cells
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coagulase
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enzyme secreted by some bacteria that allow blood to clot. convert fibrinogen to fibrin
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chief cells
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secrete pepsinogen
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parietal cells
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secrete HCL, and instrinsic factor (vit b-12 absorption)
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G-cells
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secrete gastrin which signals to parietal cells to secrete HCL
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mucous cells
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secretes protective mucous
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teeth derived from
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ectoderm
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echinoiderms
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radial symmetry- splitting lenghtwise on any plane is mirror image, not bilateral symmetry
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mononucleated
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cardiac and smooth muscle
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platyhelminthes
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unsegmented flatworms (tapeworm and flukes), unvertebrate, lack specialized nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems. gas transport by diffusion
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fast block to polyspermy
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acrosomal reaction- electrical response due to 1st sperm
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slow block to polyspermy
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cortical granules in the egg fuse with plasma membrane
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phloem
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sieve tube members, carry stuff down
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xylem
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tracheids and vessel members- carry water up and mechanically support plants. annual growth ring deposits
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nitrogen fixation
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occur in root nodule.N2 from atmosphere converted to NH3
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virus
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contain DNA or RNA but never both, obligate intracellular parasites, cannot reproduce outside living cell, capsid may be spherical or rod like
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colorblindness
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carried on X
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adaptive radiation
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number of different species emerge from single ancestor
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hardy weinberg assumptions
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1) the population is large (i.e., there is no genetic drift); 2) there is no gene flow between populations, from migration or transfer of gametes; 3) mutations are negligible; 4) individuals are mating randomly; and 5) natural selection is not operating on the population
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sperm path and maturations
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production in the seminiferous tubules, leydig cells secrete testosterone that allow the maturation, mautre in the epididymis, vas deferens transport to urethra then outside penis, bulbourethral glands (cowpers gland) adds thick mucous secretion
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transduction
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DNA transfered by a virus
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Golgi apparatus
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membrane bound sacks involved in packaging
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SA node
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pacemaker of the heart
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amphioxus and tunicates
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chordates that are not verterbrates
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amino acid used in eurakryotes for initiation during protein synthesis
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methionine NOT n-formylmehtionine
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"high energy" compounds
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phosphoenolpyruvate, Acetyl CoA, ATP
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secretin
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hormone used to stimulate pancreas to release bicarbonate
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as blood acidity rises
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breathing rate rises
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carboxy hemoglobin
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Hb-Co
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carbaminohemoglobin
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HB-CO2
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2,3-BPG
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helps unload the O from hemoglobin
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ductus venosus
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blood can bypass the liver from this
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light reaction (photosynthesis)
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a high H+ concentration is produced in thylkakoids(used to make ATP-doesnt require light)
-produce NADPH |
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dark reaction (photosynthesis)
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"Calvin Cycle"
-stroma of chloroplasts -ATP and NADPH used to "fix" carbon. |
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Haversian Systems
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compact bone
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kangaroo rat seed eating
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high in fat and carbs and low in protein- oxidation of fat provides water for the desert creature
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PKU
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high amount of tyrosine in blood
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Tay Sachs
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lysosomal defect
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erythrocyte and Krebs
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has no kreb cycle bc no mitochondria,. gets energy from glycolysis in cytosol
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increase unsaturation
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in fatty acids- fluidity increases and melting point decreases. in warmer environment an organism would wanna increase its % of saturated
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nutrients that get absorbed path
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villi - bloodstream- liver - heart- body
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loop of henle
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going down urine gets concentrated (looses H20), then going up it gets less concentrated (looses solutes)
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may have originated as a symbiotic prokaryote
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mitochondria and chloroplast (contain own DNA)
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monocytes
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develop into macrophages (not neutrophils)
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reptiles
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internal fertilization, evolved from amphibians, have three chambered hearts (except CROCODILES)
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Class Chondrichthys
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skates and sharks
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Class Amphibia
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toads and frogs
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class aves
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birds
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Class Reptilia
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lizards, turtles, and snakes
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class osteichthys
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bony fish
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class agnatha
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hagfish and laprey (lack bones, scales, and fish)
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Krebs (TCA) cycle
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-phase of aerobic respiration
-3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 1 GTP per turn of cycle -matrix of mitochondria -one form of glucose produces 2 turns of cycle |
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bacteria derive energy from
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glycolysis and electron transport chain
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link between nervous system and endocrine system
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hypothalamus
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thlyakoid membrane
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flattened sac. contain chlorophyll
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actively contracting muscle
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has more lactate than relaxing muscle (NOT pyruvate)
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sweat gland
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apocrine (respond to stress), eccrine (regulate body temp), as we age decrease effectiveness
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Mg 2+
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in chlorophyll
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Ribosomes found in
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both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
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cnidoblasts
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specialized cells located in the tentacles and body of coelenterates and is filled with nematocysts (stinging cells)
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sea urchin
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can develop a tough protective envelop called the fertilization membrane as a block to polyspermy
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melanocytes found in
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stratum germinativum
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stratum corneum
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outermost layer (skin) containing dead epithelial cells
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dermis
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CT, erector muscles, hair follicles, sensroy receptors, sweat and sebaceous glands
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serous membrane associated with the lung
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pleurae
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prinna
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fleshy outer portion of external ear
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achondroplasia
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dwarfism
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progeria
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premature aging
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lac operon
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3 structural genes that allow for synthesis of 3 enzymes for lactose metabolism. Lactose binds to repressor and inactivates it. glucose must be absent to cause positive gene regulation (by deactivating cyclic AMP)
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glycolysis
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glucose oxidized to pyruvate
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gametophyte
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plant that produces gametes and is haploid
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sporophyte
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diploid zygote
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homologous structure
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common ancestor
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carbon fixation
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dark reaction
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Km
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substrate concentration at which reaction rate is half of maximal value
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earths early atmosphere
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reducing atmosphere. NH3, H2, CH4, H2O,CO, CO2, H2S
NOT O2 |
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ABO blood groups
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demonstrate polymorphism
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heart chambers
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mammals and birds-4 chambers
fish-2 chanmbers amphibians and reptiles-3 (except crocodile-4) |
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reproductive structure of an angiosperm
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flower
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when amino acid enters cytoplasm from t-rna molecule
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it first goes to ribosome
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eukaryotes appeared approximately
|
.5 billion years ago
prokaryotes=3.5 billion |
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spindle fibers
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mirotubules and associated proteins
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prophase length
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longest mitotic stage
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genome
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total DNA content
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DNA
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is highly conserved molecule
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ungulates
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large, plant eating, hooved animals in africa, a girafe. lives in mostly grassland
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grassland soils
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are most fertile in the world
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cnidaria
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hydras, corals, jellyfish, sea anenome
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chordata
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tunicates, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, jawless fish
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|
|
exact cleavage pattern
|
depends on amount of yolk in the egg
|
|
|
RNA polymerase does not
|
have proofreading ability, much greater error level
|
|
|
t-RNA
|
has cloverleaf structure
|
|
|
vegetative propogation
|
form of asexual reproduction in plants
|
|
|
humoral immunity
|
B lymphocytes
|
|
|
cell mediated immunity
|
t lymphocytes
|
|
|
most abundant waste product in metabolism
|
CO2
|
|
|
mycology
|
science that studies fungi, three major divisions based on type of sexual spore they produe
|
|
|
first organism to evolve
|
jawless fish- hagfish(scavenger) lamprey (parasitic)
|
|
|
denaturation of proteing
|
affects 2, 3, and 4 prime structure
|
|
|
myoglobin
|
single chain and helps store 02 in muscle
|
|
|
primary neurotransmitter of autonomic nervous system
|
para- ACh
sympathetic- Norepi |
|
|
annelids
|
segmented worms (leeches and earthworm), nephridia is the excretory organ, closed cirulatory system
|
|
|
what is responsible for striations in skeletal muscle
|
alternating between thin actin and thick myosin
|
|
|
cephalopods
|
have tentacles to capture prey, squids, big demand for O2, well developed nervous system, giant nerve fibers connect brain to muscles used in jet propulsion
|
|
|
Creutzfeldt-Jakob
|
infectious protein particles called prions
|
|
|
viruses
|
can infect plant and anmal cells, rna viruses called retrovirus, antibiotics do not work against
|
|
|
glycolysis produces
|
2 net ATP, 2 NADH, 2 moles pyruvate, 2 H+
|
|
|
monera
|
blue green algea and bacteria
|
|
|
nematoda
|
hookworms and pinworms (flatworms)
|
|
|
earthworm excretion
|
functional unit called nephridium
|
|
|
sporazoans
|
diverse group of parasites, include the plasmodium (causes malaria)
|
|
|
osteoblasts trapped within small spaces of bones
|
mature into osteocytes (living bone cell)
|
|
|
fibroblast
|
produce extracellular tissue and ground substance. collagen
|
|
|
amnion
|
fluid filled sac that surrounds embryo in reptiles, birds, and mammals. NOT amphibians
|
|
|
allantois
|
sac that stores nitrogenous waster (acts as early bladder) only found in reptiles birds and mammals
-in humans involved in O2 and nutrient transport. becomes part of placenta -allantois stalk becomes umbilical cord |
|
|
m-RNA
|
least abundant type of RNA
|
|
|
lichen
|
blue-green alga with a fungus. symbiosis. alga supplies food and fungus protects and absorbs water and minerals
|
|
|
average amount of blood in human
|
5 quarts
|
|
|
antibodies
|
2 heavy chains conected with disulfide bonds, also have two small light chains
|
|
|
stigma
|
sticky part that catches pollen
|
|
|
style
|
tube that pollen goes down to get to ovary
|
|
|
mimicry
|
-mullerian= bees, wasps, hornets, all possess yellow warning label
-batesian mimicry= deceptive mimicry. flies that look like a bee |
|
|
stem cells produce cells by
|
mitosis
|
|
|
most successful fertilization technique in humans
|
micro-injection
|
|
|
operator
|
control switch (off and on) for transcription NOT translation
|
|
|
antigen-antibody complex
|
linked at the antigenic determinant
|
|
|
Helper T cells
|
lymphocyte that stimulates the production of antibodies by B cells when an antigen in present
|
|
|
complement system
|
works with the immune response. chemical defense system designed to destroy microorgansims. comprised of serum proteins. supplements inflammatory response
|
|
|
shortest phase of mitosis
|
anaphase- centromeres split and chromosomes separate
|
|
|
synapsis
|
pairing of homologous chromosomes forming an x shaped chiasmata. prophase 1 of meiosis
|
|
|
allopatric speciation
|
new species due to geographic isolation
|
|
|
population bottleneck
|
natural disaster wipes out a large population to a very small one. now has founder effect
|
|
|
cooperation effect
|
doing something helps another- first o2 binding to hemoglobin makes it easier for the next
|
|
|
green algae
|
spirogyra
|
|
|
red algae
|
rhodophyta
|
|
|
protosomes
|
mollusks, arthropds, and annelids
(opening of first indentation becomes mouth) |
|
|
oncotic pressure
|
pull fluid into capillary
|
|
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
push fluid out of a capillary
|
|
|
zymogen
|
inactive form of enzyme (pepsinogen)
|
|
|
endocytosis
|
requires ATP
|
|
|
cocci
|
spherical bacteria
|
|
|
bacilli
|
rod shaped bacteria
|
|
|
spirilla
|
helical shaped bacteria
|
|
|
staphylococci
|
cluster
|
|
|
streptococci
|
virulent, forms chains
|
|
|
normal adult teeth
|
8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, 12 molars
|
|
|
greatest resistance to blood is
|
arterioles
|
|
|
cytochromes
|
electron transport chain
|
|
|
eras on the earth
|
first precambrian (invertebrates, monera, fungi), paleozoic (land vertebretes, land plants, fish, alga), mesozoic (dinosuars), cenozoic
|
|
|
"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"
|
embryonic stages of development of an organism repeat the evolutionary history of the species
|
|
|
plasmolysis
|
shrinkage of cell due to water loss
|
|
|
sucrose
|
glucose and fructose
|
|
|
maltose
|
glucose and glucose
|
|
|
lactose
|
glucose and galactose
|
|
|
energy in food period
|
about a 10 fold decrease each level it goes up
|
|
|
earliest organism
|
probably heterotrophs
|
|
|
obligate anaerobes
|
can die in presence of O2
|
|
|
peptidoglycans
|
contain amino sugars
-bacteria |
|
|
halophiles
|
bacteria in extremely salty water
|
|
|
purple or green bacteria
|
found in anaerobic sediments of lakes or ponds, photosynthesis where H2 H2S or D is electron donor, O2 not a by product
|
|
|
monera
|
bacteria
|
|
|
9:3:3:1 is the ratio of
|
F2 generation of dihybrid cross
|
|
|
allele
|
alternative molecular form of a gene
|
|
|
major histocompatibility complex
|
responsible for organ rejections
|
|
|
adenine and guanine
|
purines- have 2 rings- bigger
|
|
|
cytosine, uracil, thymine
|
pyrimidines, 1 ring, smaller
|
|
|
actively contracting muscle
|
high rate of lactate formation
|
|
|
bacteriophage
|
virus that affects bacteria, lacks organelles but had DNA or RNA
|
|
|
interferon
|
small proteins made by cell after virus attack, bacteria, foreign substance, cancer
|
|
|
fungi
|
molds, mildew, yeast, mushroom
|
|
|
primary succession
|
areas with no soil and has not supported a community before
|
|
|
secondary succession
|
succession on a disturbed area such as a burned down area
|
|
|
petroleum
|
mixture of hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics
|
|
|
niche
|
role an organism occupies within an ecosystem. If two organism occupy same niche they will compete for food and reproduce at the same time of the year
|
|
|
climax community
|
most stable community marked by a large biomass with no environment change
|
|
|
to study intracellular proteins
|
use pulse-chase experiment
|
|
|
reptiles adaptation to drier climates
|
thick shelled eggs, internal fertilization, amniotic egg, thickened skin
-DID NOT loose gills |
|
|
chemotrophs atp production
|
use redox reactions
|
|
|
bacteria production of ATP
|
several simultaneous electron transport chains
|
|
|
after ovulation the ovarian follicle...
|
become corpus luteum, produces progesterone and estrogen that help blood vessel growth
|
|
|
ferns
|
-vascular plants with large feathery leaves
- large leaves with many veins -fern spores develop on sporophyte in sporangia -sori, or clusters of sporangia develop on the lower surface of the leaf |
|
|
mitosis percentage of cell cycle
|
10%
|
|
|
dark reaction produces
|
glucose
|
|
|
dioecious
|
species in which each individual is distinctly male or female. cannot self fertilize
|
|
|
K-selected population
|
members have low reproductive rates and are roughly constant in size (humans)
|
|
|
R-selected population
|
rapid growth, numerous offspring, fast maturation, very little postnatal care (bacteria)
|
|
|
a fungi's life cycle is dominated by
|
haploid stage
|
|
|
casparian strip
|
waxy band in plants that aid in water control
|
|
|
polysaccharides offer more variety than
|
polypeptides
|
|
|
glycogen can be stored
|
intracellularly
|
|
|
eukaryotes and prokaryotes
|
both have ribosomes
|
|
|
tay-sachs disease
|
autosomal recessive disease in which a lysozomeal enzyme defect occurs and causes lipid buildup in brain cells, causing retardation, blindness, and death usually in first 5 years
-lots of jews have this |
|
|
hydrogen peroxide
|
H2O2, broken down by catalase, its an oxidizing agent, peroxisome are membranous vesicles that contain enzymes to breakdown H2O2
|
|
|
western blot
|
proteins
|
|
|
southern blot
|
DNA
|
|
|
northern blot
|
RNA
|
|
|
flourescence correlation spectroscopy
|
studies cell to cell communication
|
|
|
buffer system of intracellular fluids
|
phosphate buffer
|
|
|
cell differentiation
|
cells become fully differentiated without loss of genetic information. you can transplant a zygote into a different organism and it will still grow to maturity
|
|
|
cells of proximal convoluted tubules have a large abundance of...
|
mitochondira
|
|
|
aquatic animals such as bony fish excrete
|
ammonia, because its easily eliminated in water
|
|
|
flagellum protein
|
dynein- movement protein. also involved with chromosome movement
|
|
|
flagella and cilia
|
have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules
|
|
|
cytoskeleton
|
both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Intermediate fibers= keritin microtubules= tubulin microfilaments= actin |
|
|
gastrula
|
U shaped structure
|
|
|
hemoglobin and increased acidity
|
easier O2 release
|
|
|
epidermis
|
no blood supply
|
|
|
stratum corneum
|
surface layer which varies in thickness
|
|
|
stratum granulosum
|
granules, can easily stain
|
|
|
stratum germinativum
|
dividing cells
|
|
|
determinate cleavage
|
if a cell splits and is seperated it cannot grow to a full organism. protosomes (mollusks annelids and arthropods)
|
|
|
HB curve shift right
|
more O2 is delivered.
more: Acid, temp, C02 |
|
|
bilayer is not
|
symmetric
|
|
|
genetic map
|
map distances by using cross over frequencies
|
|
|
acquired characteristic theory
|
lamarck
|
|
|
anaerobic heterotrophs
|
first cellular organism
|
|
|
kinetochore
|
specialized group of proteins and DNA where spindle microtubules attatch
|
|
|
first law of thermodynamics
|
energy neither created nor destroyes
|
|
|
intercalated disk
|
hold heart muscle together. allow for passage of electricity
|
|
|
cartilage
|
rises from mesenchyme. CT has high ability to reproduce. it is avascular
|
|
|
predator and prey population lines
|
inverse
|
|
|
vestigial organ
|
useless structure that has no purpose
|
|
|
lactate acid
|
anearobic. blood transports to liver. cori cycle turns it to glucose
|
|
|
glyoxylate cycle
|
plants and bacteria
|
|
|
beta oxidation
|
matrix of mitochondria. fats to metabolized to acetyl coA for citric acid (TCA) cycle
|
|
|
fatty acid synthesis
|
cytosol
|
|
|
Telomere length and age
|
telomeres get shorter as the cell divides, it is what defines the aging process
|
|
|
recombinant DNA techonology
|
implant synthesized or foreign dna- can by used to make insulin or GH-
|
|
|
episome
|
plasmid thats is incorporated into a chromosome
|
|
|
bacterias genes
|
in both chromosomes and plasmids
|
|
|
promoter site
|
on DNA, where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription
|
|
|
epistasis
|
one gene pair modifies or masks the expression of another one
|
|
|
Downs syndrome
|
trisomy 21. more prone to alzheimers or luekemia
|
|
|
volvox
|
plant like protist
NOT mold |
|
|
TMJ
|
lower and upper jaw attachment
|
|
|
prostate gland
|
makes more basic to enhance sperm motility- both the seminal fluid and vaginal secretion.
|
|
|
ruminants
|
mammals, which has a 4 interconnected basic stomachs. can digest cellulose. cows deer sheep
|
|
|
blood flow in capillaries
|
very slow due to large cross section area
|
|
|
Helper T cells
|
mobilize both humoral and cell-mediated immune system
-secrete cytokines (signalling molecules like interleukins or interferons) |
|
|
interleukins
|
attract helper T cells to macrophages
- interleukin 1 made by macrophages -interleukin 2 made by helper T cells |
|
|
natural killer cells
|
only attack infected body cells, not invading microorganism
|
|
|
rain shadow
|
reduction of rainfall on the leeward side of a high mountain
|
|
|
punctuated equilibrium
|
rapid evolution creating a new species quickly
|
|
|
arteries
|
strongest and thickest walls
-3 layers, endothelial lining, smooth muscle and elastic tissue, out CT layer |
|
|
food spoilage
|
rhizopus- black bread mold
-obligate parasite |
|
|
monocots
|
stem vascular bundles are scattered, leaves have parallel veins
|
|
|
conifers
|
oldest and largest trees in the world
|
|
|
gymnospores
|
first plants to have seeds
|
|
|
euglena
|
fresh water, plant like- have chloroplasts, can carry out photosynthesis. animal like because they are motile through flagellum
|
|
|
G1 phase
|
where mitochondria are produced- longest stage (M is the shortest stage)
|
|
|
killer t-cell
|
kills own body cells that have been invaded. can kill cancer. uses perforin to kill. made in thymus
|
|
|
HIV targets
|
helper T cells
|
|
|
light reaction
|
atp produced, water is oxidized, NADP is reduced to NADPH
|
|
|
enterogastrone
|
released by duodenum to inhibit peristalsis and acid secretion
|
|
|
insulin
|
derived from preproinsulin and pro-insulin.binds to receptors and puts glucose in. also lets some amino acids into muscle and fat cells
|
|
|
hormones
|
can be intracellular messengers produced by ductless glands
|
|
|
pine tree
|
gymnospore (naked seed)
|
|
|
ATP hydrolysis
|
large negative delta G
|
|
|
Ip3
|
second messenger that activates Ca++ release from endoplasmic reticulum
|
|
|
amphibians
|
developed lungs, legs, redesigned heart, and the ability to prevent drying out- to allow them to invade land
-still use water for reproduction do not have amnion |
|
|
ACh
|
ligand
|
|
|
facultative anaerobic bacteria
|
can live with or without O2. fermentation when no O2
|
|
|
obligate anaerobic bacteria
|
die if exposed to O2
|
|
|
phase contrast microscopy
|
light microscopy- no staining so can do live cells
|
|
|
electron microscopes
|
need to stain so it kills cells, much more organelles than light microscopy
|
|
|
dark field microscopy
|
views live cells or flagella that are too thin to be seen my phase contrast microscopy
|
|
|
methanogens
|
strictly anaerobic, poisoned by O2. convert H2 and CO2 into methane. found in guts of ruminants, swamps, and marshes
|
|
|
efficiency of an enzyme
|
Kcat/Km
larger=more efficient |
|
|
syngamy
|
fertilization
|
|
|
injection of non pathogenic R bacteria with heat killed S pathogenic bacteria becomes viable S bacteria
|
fred griffith, its called transformation
|
|
|
glycozylate cycle
|
plants and some bacteria. produce sugars from acetyl CoA
|
|
|
hexose monophosphate shunt
|
pentose phosphate pathway
-converts glucose into 5 carbon suger and generates NADPH for use in reductive biosynthesis |
|
|
knee
|
hinge joint
|
|
|
ACL
|
connects femur and tibia, one of 4 ligaments, limits rotational knee movements
|
|
|
monometer
|
measures gas pressures
|
|
|
sphygmomanometer
|
measures blood pressure
|
|
|
electron transport chain location
|
inner mitochondrial membrane
|
|
|
ten turns of calvin cycle
|
20 pgal from 6 CO2 and 6 RBP molecules
|
|
|
oxidative phosphorylation
|
34 ATP
|
|
|
lysogenic life cycle of a bacteriophage
|
replicates with host DNA, can remain dormant indefinately, can exist as a prophage
|
|
|
LH surge
|
stimulates ovulation and the ruptured follicle to develop into corpus luteum
|
|
|
fixed action pattern
|
complex, coordinated, innate behavioral responses to specific patterns of stimulation in the environment. herd movement patterns
|
|
|
area of kidney with lowest filtrate solute concentration
|
cortex
|
|
|
ATP production
|
36 total,
34 from oxidative phosphorylation 2 from glycolysis -2 for shuttling 2 from Krebs |
|
|
human ovulation
|
releases the egg into the body cavity, then fimbrae pull it into the oviduct
|
|
|
male reproductive parts of plant
|
pollen, anther, filament, stamen
|
|
|
bacterial transformation
|
alteration of genotype bc bateria takes up naked foreign DNA
|
|
|
bacterial transduction
|
phages (viruses) transfer bacterial dna from one host cell to another
|
|
|
bacterial conjugation
|
direct transfer of genetic material between two temporarily joined bacteria cells
|
|
|
placenta
|
site of exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases, and metabolic wastes
|
|
|
nerve net
|
cnidarians
|
|
|
long bones
|
endochondral ossification
(epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis, epiphysis) |
|
|
comensalism
|
only one animal benefits, remora attaching to a shark, or cattle egret and cow
|
|
|
rhizopus
|
amoeba,
unicellular and heterotrophic, psuedopodia, well developed organelles (contractle vacule), single nucleus |
|
|
movement of water through chambers of porifera caused by
|
choanocytes (collar cells) with flagella
|
|
|
protonephridial system
|
network of closed tubules lacking internal openings, branch throughout body and get capped by a flame bulb. often seen in flatworms (turbellaria planarian)
|
|
|
parastites you get from eating something
|
giarida, taenia, trichinosis, ascaris
NOT schistosomiasis (get it from working in fields with feces) |
|
|
modern cell theory
|
organisms activity is dependent on activity of independent cells, metabolism and biochemistry occur within ells, hereditary info is stored in cells and shared during division, all cells in organism of similar species have similar chemical compositions
|
|
|
detach peripheral membrane proteins
|
salt wash or change pH
|
|
|
extract integral proteins
|
adding a detergent
|
|
|
miller-urey "chemical origins of like" experiement
|
used ammonia, methane, water, and hydrogen and then electrocuted and observed organic compounds, amino acids. NOT nucleic acids
|
|
|
channel protiens allow
|
facilitated diffusion
|
|
|
toxin that degenerates microfilaments
|
will affect muscle cells (actin and myosin)
|
|
|
pili
|
small short hairs on surface of bacteria that can be used to exchange genetic material or cell adhesion
|
|
|
exergonic
|
energy is realesed
|
|
|
plasmolyzed
|
water leaving the cell. causes it to shrink
|
|
|
turgid
|
swelling of cell due to water flowing in
|
|
|
notochord becomes
|
length of cartilage that becomes the spine (bony)
|
|
|
spinal cord begins as
|
dorsal neural tube
|
|
|
poikilothermic
|
cold blooded
|
|
|
homeotherms
|
warm blooded
|
|
|
passive immunity
|
transfer of antibodies, breastfeading
|
|
|
deuterostome
|
first opening becomes anus
|
|
|
zona pellucida
|
outer layer of egg that is responsible for the initial binding of the sperm
|
|
|
cladogram
|
way to determine if organisms are related but not on a molecular or gene level (based on phenotypes)
|
|
|
gel electrophoresis
|
helps determine molecular similarity of differences in organisms
|
|
|
brackish water
|
mix between salt and fresh water. found in a estuary
|
|
|
fitness
|
organisms ability to reproduce and pass on inherited traits to their offspring
|
|
|
allelopathey
|
type of interference competition, prevents other organsims from coming and competing for same resources
|
|
|
taiga
|
largest biome on earth
|
|
|
photosystem 2
|
P680 oxidizes water after its electrons bounce out to fill the "holes" of P700
|
|
|
hyperthyroidism
|
increased heart rate, weight loss, protruding eyes
|
|
|
denitrifying bacteria
|
convert ammonia to nitrogen gas
|
|
|
inducible gene regulation
|
repressor always active unless inducer binds and changes repressor
|
|
|
repressible system
|
repressor is inactive till it binds with corepressor
|
|
|
protein hormones
|
trypsin, adh, insulin, glucagon
|
|
|
digestion of carbs
|
mouth (amylase in saliva) and small intestine (amylase from pancreas)
|
|
|
muscle contraction
|
I bands contract, h zone contracts, z lines contract, m line contracts
|
|
|
I band
|
actin "light"
|
|
|
a band
|
myosin length "dark"
|
|
|
h zone
|
where its only myosin "medium"
|
|
|
convergent evolution
|
animals in different branches of tree evolve similar structures
|
|
|
thyroxine
|
amino acid derived hormone
|
|
|
hydrogen bonds on water
|
make good surface for small particles and living organisms to cross
|
|
|
prokaryotes and eukaryotes both have
|
ribosomes and integral membrane protiens on plasma membrane
|
|
|
character displacement
|
differences among similar species whose distributions overlap geographically are accentuated in regions where the species co-occur but are minimized or lost where the species’ distributions do not overlap. This pattern results from evolutionary change driven by competition among species for a limited resource (e.g. food). The rationale for character displacement stems from the competitive exclusion principle, also called Gause's Law, which contends that to coexist in a stable environment two competing species must differ in their respective ecological niche; without differentiation, one species will eliminate or exclude the other through competition.
-2 birds have different beak type and compete for same food |
|
|
create the biggest amount of genetic variation for a diploid species in a single generation
|
hybridization
|
|
|
9 ATP, 3 CO2, 6 NADPH in calvins cylce
|
produce a single 3 carbon G3P
|
|
|
nucleosomes function
|
store genetic material, condense genetic material, coil DNA
|
|
|
The region of a mammalian kidney with the highest osmolality is the
|
inner medulla
|
|
|
Atmospheric N2 gas is fixed into more usable forms by
|
symbiotic bacteria, lightening, during the creation of fertilizers, combustion of fossil feuls
|
|
|
nucleosome
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A nucleosome is the basic unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes, consisting of a segment of DNA wound in sequence around four histone protein cores. This structure is often compared to thread wrapped around a spool.
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sequence of humoral immune response
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naïve B cells -> mature B cells -> plasma cells -> antibodies. After naïve B cells become mature in the bone marrow, they move to secondary lymphoid organs and await activation from helper T cells. After activation, mature B cells begin differentiating into plasma cells. In turn, plasma cells produce antibodies which are capable of binding to invading antigens.
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restriction enzymes
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cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites. EcoRI, EcoRII, and BamHI are examples of restriction enzymes
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monophyletic group
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consists of the most recent common ancestor to all of the members of the group and all of the descendents of that common ancestor
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proteins secondary structure
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alpha coils and beta sheets
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mammalian bone
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primarily composed of collagen, inorganic hydroxyapatites, and calcium
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sporophyte
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diploid, produces spores by meiosis
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d. melanogastor
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fruit fly- arthropod
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c. elegans
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nematoda
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fungi dont have
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chloroplasts
(have mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, golgi bodies) |
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biosynthetic reactions result in a
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more ordered state, therefore a decrease in entropy
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in the nephron of the kidney, filtration occurs between
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glomerulus and bowmans capsule
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which invertebrate group is apparently most similar to primitive vertebrates
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echinoderms (over annelida, molluska, cnidarian, arthropodia)
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rate and type of cleavage determined by
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amount and distribution of yolk
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how many pgal to make a glucose
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6
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budding produces
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2 nonidentical cells (binary fission makes identical)
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nervous net that is responsible for coordinating complex movement like swimming
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cnidarians
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physical environment
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light, temp, soil, water ect
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passive immunity
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gamma globulin and maternal antibodies
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elongated cells with chloroplasts spread over large surface area
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palisade layer
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causes speciation
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disruptive selection
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gamma globulin
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resistant to infection
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highest O2 concentration of fetal circulation system
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umbilical vein
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has LESS peptidoglycans
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gram negative (less than gram positive)
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enzymes
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lower activation energy, is substrate specific due to induced fit and allosteric regulations
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myxomycota
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plasmid slime mold, Protista
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zygomycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota
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fungi
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nuclease
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appears in digestive tract, mostly small intestines, hydrolyzes nucelotides
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clotting
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calcium, thrombin, prothrombin
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vitelline membrane
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outer layer of fertilized zygote. gets cast off during mitosis
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exponential growth
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birth rates exceed death rates
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elongation sequence
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1) codon recognition
2) peptide bond formation 3)translocation |
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multinucleated cytoplasm of a fungal hypha
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coenocytic
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evolving of a new species via genetic isolation withing the same geographical region
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sympatric speciation
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maximum number of chromosome combinations
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2^n
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crossing over occurs
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during prophase 1 of meiosis 1
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inorganic coenzymes
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Fe, Mg, Zn, manganeese, selinium, copper
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adaptive radiation
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single line branches to many
caused by natural selection |
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as a community moves through succession
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total biomass increases
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delocalized "sea of electrons"
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describes metal bonding characterisitics
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explosive reaction with water
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alkali metals
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most dramatic effect on sequence of protein
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deletion or insertion mutation
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placenta secretes
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The placenta secretes progesterone and estrogen once a pregnancy is established. Early in pregnancy, the placenta secretes hCG.
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homologous structure
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share common ancenstor. insects dont share with birds and mammals
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myofilaments
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actin or myosin
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myotubule
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centriole and flagella
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microfibrils
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cellulose
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anticodons
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are the same as the dna strand (except U)
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chitin
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modified celulose with nitrogen, exoskeleton of arthropods, cell wall of fungi
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fast block to polyspermy
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acrosome reaction
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spirogyra
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photoautrophic protist reprodeces asexually by fragmentation and sexually through conjugation
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negative pressure breathing
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contraction of diapragm and incompressability of intra-plueral fluid
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cell membrane
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lipid, proteins, carbs, cholesterol
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basophils
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release histamine
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if all electrons get passed to flavin mononucleotides
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38 atp
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bryophyta
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haploid, nonvascular, mosses
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thymus
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t lymphocytes
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initial source of electrons in non cyclic electron flow
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h2o
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cephalization
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concentration of sensory equipment and CNS on dorsal side
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pre-biotic chemical order
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inorganic molecules, methane ammonia and gases, short polymers and simple sugars, protobionts
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pleiotropy
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one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits
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digested fats absorbed through small intestines goes to
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lacteals
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lack flagellated stages
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cellular slime molds (acrasiomycota)
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breathing control centers
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pons and medulla
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fat catabolism
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glycerol goes into glycolysis and and fatty acid monomers turned into acetyl coA
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double fertilization in angiosperm
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generative cell undergoes one time of mitosis to produce 2 sperm that seperately fertilize an egg and 2 polar nuclei through help from a pollen tube
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9 ATPs in calvin cycle
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form a 3 carbon chain
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interstitial cells
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make testosterone
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psuedocoelomates
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have body cavities not fuly lined by mesoderm
rotifera and nematoda |
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cone cells
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colored vision when light is strong
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rod cells
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black and white in low light. are depolarized in dark and hyperpolarized in light
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fungi cell walls
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glucan or chitin
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prostaglandins
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modified fatty acids used in inflammation pain, fever
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endospores
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enable bacteria proliferation
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lymphatic system
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remove excess fluid pathogens, dead blood cells, and cellular debris
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spermatid
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haploid
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centriole separation
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prophase
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teeth derive from
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ectoderm
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spertmatogenesis
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seminiferous tubules
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vivaparous mammal
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offspring develop in uterus
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veins that carry oxegenated blood
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pulmonary and umbilical
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glycogen stored in
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liver
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krebs (TCA)
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aerobic
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glycolysis
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glucose oxidized to pyruvate
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assembles ribosomes
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nucleolus
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promotoer sites
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prokaryotes= pribnow box
eukaryotes= tata box |
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algea
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protist (except for blue green)
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fungi
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haploid stage dominates
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portal vein
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directs glucose and other monosacharrides to the liver
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cilia
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microtubules
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mollusk
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determinate cleavage (all protosomes)
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epidermis is wterprooof
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bc of keratin matrx
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animal like protist that uses psuedopodia to move and feed
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amoeba
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beta oxidation
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matrix of mitochondria
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fatty acid synthesis
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cytosol
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animals cannot convert fat
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into glucose
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arteries
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strongest and thickest walls
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G1
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longest stage of cell cylce
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fatty acids enter the degradative pathway as
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acetyl coA
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tick bird and rhino
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mutualism
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ClO4^2-
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doesnt exist
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what determines if two liquids can be miscible
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only polarity
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yeast anearobic
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ethanol
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Rna
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ribose sugar and single stranded
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first step of meiosis
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chromosomes condense in a diploid nucleus
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lipid in eukaryotic membrane but not prokayotic
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sterioids
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adrenal medulla is similar to
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sympathetic ans
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contains most species
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arthropodia
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tetrads
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a pair of 2 replicated chromosomes (same as haploid number)
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capaciation
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oviduct
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spindel fiber attatches at
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centromere
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moderators
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slow down neutrons
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under basal conditions which recieves the greatest blood flow
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liver
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fat soluable vitamins
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A D E K
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sense strand
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coding strand
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