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109 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Immune system defends against? and responds with?
Pathogens/foreign bodies it may encounter, and responds with production of immune cells and proteins.
Describe the innate immunity?
Born with it, the innate immunity is broad/nonspecific and will respond weather it has seen a pathogen or not.
The external and internal innate defenses:
Barrier: Skin, mucous membranes, secretions
Internal Defenses: Phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response, natural killer cells.
Describe acquired immunity(defenses), adoptive immunity:
Develops after exposure to agents such as microbes, toxins or other foreign substances. Very specific.
Types of Acquired immunity:
Humoral response: Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids.
Cell mediated response: Cytotoxic lymphocytes defend against infections in body cells.
Microphages are mainly a part of the:
Innate immunity
White blood cells engulf what in the body? Groups of these are recognized by?
Pathogens, TLR (Toll like receptors)
Signs of inflammation:
Symptoms of inflammation:
Redness, swelling, heat, pain
Inflammation process releases histamines, nucleotrions
A white cell engulfs a ______, then fuses with a _______ to destroy the _______.
microbe, lymphocyte
What are the four different types of phagocytic cells? and what do they do?
Neutrophils: Engulf and destroy microbes
Microphages: are a part of the lymphatic system and are found through out the body
Eosinophils: discharge destructive enzymes
Dendritic cells: stimulate development of acquired immunity.
What do Interferon proteins do?
They provide innate defense against viruses and help activate/tracts microphages.
What is the complement system made of? And what do they do?
Made up of 30/cascade of proteins which cause lysis of invading cells and help trigger inflammation.
Following an injury ___________ release _______ which promotes changes in the blood vessels. This is a part of the ____________. What do these changes do?
mast cells, histamine, inflammatory response. Increase local blood supply and allow more phagocytes and antimicrobial proteins to enter tissues.
What is a fever?
Microphages release pyrogens, and pathogens release toxins.
Septic shock?
Life threatening condition cause by overwhelming inflammatory response.
All cells in the body except for red blood cells have this protein and when infected cells no longer express this protein they are attacked by?
class 1 MHC and infected cellas are attacked by natural killer cells (NK) cells.
What kind of cells recognize and respond to antigens?
White blood cells called lymphocytes.
Where do T-cells and B-cells mature?
T-cells, thymus above the heart are cell mediated (in body cells)
B-cells in the bone marrow and are humoral (body fluids/blood)
Lymphocytes contribute to ________ . How/what is recruited to activate lymphocytes.
They contribute to the immunological memory. Cytokinesis are secreted by microphages and dendritic cells to recruit and activate lymphocytes.
What is an antigen? How many antigen receptors does any single b cell or t cell have?
An antigen is any foreign molecule to which a lymphocyte responds. about 1000 identical antigen receptors.
Receptors have both:
Constant and variable regions on them.
All antigens on a single lymphocyte recognize the same:
epitope or antigenic determinant/flag on an antigen
What do B cells give rise to? Which secret what?
B cells give rise to plasma cells which secrete proteins called antibodies or. immunoglobulins.
What is the difference between immunoglobulins and B cells receptors?
Structurally simular but lack transmembrane regions that anchor receptors in the plasma membrane.
B cell receptors bind to what? and consist of what?
Bind to specific intact antigens and consist of two identical heavy and light chains.
T cell receptors bind to what? and consist of what?
Bind to an antigen that is free or on the surface of a pathogen and fragments presented on a host cell. Consist of two different polypeptide chains.
What is antigen presentation?
In infected cells, MHC major histocompatibility complex molecules bind and transport antigen fragments to the cell surface.
Where are Class 1 MHC molecules found? and what do they display to what?
They are found on almost all nucleated cells in the body. They display peptide antigens to cytotoxic t cells.
Where are class 2 MHC cells found? and display what to what?
they are located mainly on dendritic cells, microphages and b cells, antigen presenting cells that display antigens to cytotoxic t cells and helper t cells
What are the 3 important properties of the acquired immune system?
Receptor diversity
A lack reactivity against host cells (self tolerance)
immunological memory
A lack of reactivity against host cells:
Self tolerance
What are the 3 types lymphocyte diversity?
By gene rearrangement
origin of self tolerance
Clonal selection
Explain Gene rearrangement.
The immunoglobulin (Ig) encodes one chain of the B cell receptor, rearrangement of DNA and is transcribed, translated and the antigen receptor is formed.
Explain origin of self tolerance.
As lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow or thymus, they are tested for self reactivity. Lymphocytes with receptors specific for the body's own molecules are destroyed or rendered nonfunctional.
Explain Clonal selection.
The binding of mature lymphocytes to an antigen induces the lymphocyte to divide rapidly
What are the two types of clones produced.
effector cells and long lived memory cells
Explain the primary immune response.
In the primary response, effector B cells called plasma cells are generated and t cells are activated to their effector form.
Explain the secondary immune response.
Memory cells facilitate a faster, more efficient response.
Humoral immune response involves what?
activation and and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies.
Cell mediated immune response.
involves activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells.
A lack of reactivity against host cells:
Self tolerance
What are the 3 types lymphocyte diversity?
By gene rearrangement
origin of self tolerance
Clonal selection
Explain Gene rearrangement.
The immunoglobulin (Ig) encodes one chain of the B cell receptor, rearrangement of DNA and is transcribed, translated and the antigen receptor is formed.
Explain origin of self tolerance.
As lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow or thymus, they are tested for self reactivity. Lymphocytes with receptors specific for the body's own molecules are destroyed or rendered nonfunctional.
Explain Clonal selection.
The binding of mature lymphocytes to an antigen induces the lymphocyte to divide rapidly
What are the two types of clones produced.
effector cells and long lived memory cells
Explain the primary immune response.
In the primary response, effector B cells called plasma cells are generated and t cells are activated to their effector form.
Explain the secondary immune response.
Memory cells facilitate a faster, more efficient response.
Humoral immune response involves what?
activation and and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in production of secreted antibodies.
Cell mediated immune response.
involves activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells.
To who and how do Helper t cells respond?
A surface protein called CD4 binds the class II MHC molecule which keeps the helper t cells joined to the antigen presenting cell while activation occurs. Activated helper T cells secret cytokinesis which stimulates other lymphocytes.
Cytotoxic T cells:
Response to infected cells. They are the effector cells in CMR. Make CD8, bind to class I MHC, activates the T cell and makes it an active killer. secretes proteins that destroy the infected target cell.
B cells:
Respond to extracellular pathogens. The humoral response is is characterized by secretion of antibodies by B cells.
Monoclonal antibodies are prepared from?
a single clone of B cells grown in culture
IgM Pentameter Distribution and Functions.
Distribution: First Ig class produced after exposure to antigens, than concentration in blood declines.
Function: Promotes neutralization and cross linking of antigens; effective in complement system activation.
IgG Monomer Distribution and functions.
Distribution: Most abundant Ig class in blood, also present in tissue fluids.
Function: Promotes opsonization, neutralization and cross linking of antigens; less effective in complement system than IgM. Only Ig class that passes placenta, passive immunity on fetus.
IgA Dimer Distribution and functions.
Distribution: Present in secretions such as tears, mucus, saliva, breast milk.
Function: Provides localized defense of mucus membranes by cross linking and neutralization of antigens.
Passive immunity on nursing infant.
IgE Monomer Distributions and functions.
Distributions: Present in blood at low concentrations.
Function: Triggers release from mast cells and basophils of histamines that cause allergic reactions.
IgD Monomer Dis. and func.
Dist: Present primarily on surface of B cells that have not been exposed to antigens.
Func: Acts as antigen receptor in antigen stimulated proliforation. (Clonal selection).
Neutralization?
Occurs when a pathogen can no longer infect a host because it is bound to an antibody.
Opsonization?
Occurs when antibodies bound to antigens increase phagocytosis.
Antibodies together with proteins of the complement system generate?f
a membrane attack complex and cell lysis.
Active immunity?
develops naturally in response to an infection or immunization, vaccination.
Passive immunity?
Provides immediate, short term protection. IgG placenta mother to fetus or IgA breast milk mother to infant.
*Autoimmune diseases include:
Systematic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and multiple sclerosis.
Psychological stress disrupts:
hormonal, nervous and immune system.
AIDs is caused by a?
Virus
Immunodeficiency results from?
Hereditary or developmental defects that prevent proper functioning of innate, humoral and cell mediated defenses.
Latency is when?
A virus remains in a host in an inactive state. Herpes Simplex.
What does osmoregulation do?
Regulates solute concentrations and balances the gain and loss of water. Must be maintained with in fairly narrow limits.
What does excretion do?
Gets rid of nitrogenous metabolites and other waste products.
What is osmoregulation based on?
It is based largely on controlled movement of solutes between internal fluids and the external environment.
Freshwater animals______________
Desert and Marine animals_________
Reduce water uptake and conserve solutes
Quickly deplete body water
Osmolarity?
The solute concentrations of a solution determines the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Isoosmotic?
The movement of water is equal in both direction.
If two solutions differ in osmolarity, the net flow of water is:
from the hypoosmotic to hyperosmotic solution. concentration of solute goes up and concentration of water goes down.
Osmoconformers?
only some marine animals, are isoosmotic with their environment and do not regulate their osmolarity.
Osmoregulators? Human are Osmoregulators.
expend energy to control water uptake and loss in a hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic environment.
Most animals are stenohaline, what does this mean?f
They cannot withstand substantial changes in external osmolarity.
Euryhaline?
Animals that can withstand large fluctuations in external osmolarity.
What is transport epithelia?
Specialized epithelial cells that regulate solute movement. arranged in complex tubular networks.
The most important wastes are:
nitrogenous breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids.
Types of nitrogenous wastes in animals:
Ammonia aquatic animals
Mammals Urea
Uric acid Reptiles
Animals that excrete ammonia need?
Lots of water, release it through the whole body surface or gills
How is urea made?
The liver of mammals and most adult amphibians converts ammonia to a less toxic urea, the circulatory system carries urea to kidneys to be excreted. Urea requires less water but more energy.
How is uric acid made?
Uric acid is insoluble in water and requires more energy than urea, usually pasty with little water loss, n insects, land snails and reptiles., and birds.
The amount of waste depends on animals?
energy budget
*Most excretory systems produce urine by?
Refining a filtrate derived from body fluids. Filtrate is nonselective.
What are the key functions of most excretory systems?
Filtration: Pressure filtering of body fluids.
Reabsorption: reclaiming valuable solutes.
Secretion: adding toxins and other solutes from the body to the filtrate.
Excretion: removing the filtrate from the system.
The excretory organs of vertebrates, function in both excretion and osmoregulation:
Kidneys
How are kidneys supplied and drained?
They are supplied with blood by renal arteries and drained by renal veins.
How does urine leave the kidneys]?
through a duct called the ureter.
Both ureters drain into a common _______ and the urine is expelled through a _______.
urinary bladder, urethra
The mammalian kidney has two distinct regions:
An outer renal cortex and inner renal medulla.
What is the functional unit of the vertebrate kidney and what does it consist of?
The nephron and it is consisted of a single long tubule and ball of capillaries called the glomerulus.
_________ surrounds and receives filtrate from the glumerulus.
Bowman's capsule.
Filtration of small molecules is_______
nonselective.
How does filtration occur?
Filtration occurs as blood pressure forces blood from the glumerulus into the lumen of the bowmans capsule.
What does the filtrate contain?
salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules. Not proteins.
From Bowman's capsule, the filtrate passes through three regions of the nephron:
proximal tubule, the loop Henle and the distal tubule.
Fluid from several nephrons flows into a ________, all of which lead to the _________ which is drained by the ureter.
Collecting duct, renal pelvis
What is confined to the renal cortex?
Cortical Nephrons
What have loops of Henle that descend into the renal medulla.
Juxtamedullary nephrons
Each nephron is supplied with blood by an _________. Which is?
afferent arteriole, which is a branch of the renal artery that divides into the capillaries.
The capillaries converge as they leave the glumerulus, forming an_________.
efferent arteriole
After the efferent arteriole the vessels divide again forming the ________ which?
peritubular capillaries, which surround the proximal and distal tubules.
What are Vasa Recta? How do they function?
Are capillaries that serve the loop of Henle. Function as a countercurrent system.
How does the mammalian kidney conserve water?
By producing urine that is much more concentrated by than body fluids.
What happens in the proximal tubule?
Reabsorption of ions, water and nutrients, molecules are transported actively and passively from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid and than capillaries. Some toxic materials are secreted into the filtrate and the volume decreases.