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248 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Form and function: Anatomy
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Biological form of the animal
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Form and function: Physiology
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biological functions an organism performs
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Organization of organs: perspective 1
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Bottom-up: Nervous system
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Organization of organs: perspective 2
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Top-down: Digestive system
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Mammalian organ systems |
1.digestive 2. circulatory 3. immune system 4. excretory 5. endocrine 6. reproduction 7. nervous |
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Four types of animal tissues
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1. Epithelial
2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Nervous |
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Epithelial tissue
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1. covers outside of body
2. lines organs and cavities within body 3. joined together to form layers |
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Shapes of the cells (epithelium)
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1. Cuboidal epithelium
2. Simple columnar 3. Squamous Epithelium |
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Pseudostratified columnar
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1. Specific depending on functions, have cilia
2. trachea |
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Stratified squamous
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1. stack of them on tops of each other
2. mouth |
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Apical surface
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faces outside the human
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Basal surface
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faces inside tissue or organ
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Simple squamous
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1. thin layer
2. lungs: to help O2 pass |
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Connective Tissue: Function
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1. provides structure
2. supports other tissues |
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Organization: Fibers
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1. Collagen
2. Reticular 3. Elastic |
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Collagen Fiber
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strength, flexibility
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Reticular Fiber
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Joins tissues
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Elastic Fibers
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Stretch and get back its shape
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Six forms of connective tissues
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1. Blood
2. Cartilage 3. Adipose 4. Bone 5. Fibrous 6. Elastic |
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Connective tissue: Blood
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metabolic support; RBC and plasma
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Connective tissue: Cartilage
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extracellular matrix, strong tissue
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Connective tissue: Adipose
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Storage of fat; fuel; insulation
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Connective tissue: Bone
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mineralized tissue
Calcium |
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Connective tissue: Fibrous
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Tendons and ligaments
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Connective tissue: elastic fiber
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collagen
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Three types of muscle |
1. Skeletal 2. Smooth 3. Cardiac |
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skeletal muscle
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voluntary movements
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smooth muscle
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involuntary body activities
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cardiac muscle
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heart contractions
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Striped muscle
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skeletal muscle
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interacting and crisscross muscle fibers
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smooth muscle
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Nervous system: tissues
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1. neurons
2. glial |
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Endocrine system
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1. transmits hormones through out whole body and blood
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Nervous system |
1. Specific locations 2. fast 3. brief communication |
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Two general strategies: Feedback control
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1. Regulator
2. Conformer |
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Feedback control: Regulator
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1. internal mechanism to control internal state
2. keeps insides same temp with ambient environment |
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Feedback control: Conformer
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1. external world alters internal state
2. it regulates the salt content |
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Homeostasis
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whole collection of mechanism (balance internal environment)
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Thermoregulation: endotherms |
animals that regenerate by metabolism |
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Thermoregulation: ectotherms
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gain heat from external sources
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an animals diet must provide:
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1. chemical energy for cellular processes
2. organic blocks for macromolecules 3. essential nutrients |
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four essential nutrients
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1. essential amino acids
2. essential fatty acids 3. vitamins 4. minerals |
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essential amino acids
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20 amino acids; half synthesized and others from food
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essential fatty acids
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1. Alpha-linolenic acid: Omega-3 fatty acids
2. Linoleic acid: omega-6 fatty acids |
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vitamins
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organic models that was required for catalyzed reactions
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Two forms of vitamins
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water-soluble and fat-soluble
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minerals
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inorganic molecules
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Stages of food processing |
1. Ingest 2. digestion 3. absorption 4. elimination |
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digestion
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braking food down into molecules small enough to absorb
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two modes of digestions
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mechanical and chemical
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absorption
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uptake of nutrients into the body
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digestive system: accessory glands
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1. salivary glands
2. pancreas 3. liver 4. gall bladder |
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mechanical and chemical digestion starts in:
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oral cavity
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enzyme that breaks down glucose polymer
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amylase
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parietal cells secrete
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hydrochloric acid
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chief cells secrete
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pepsinogen (converts to pepsin)
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pepsin
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breaks down proteins
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longest compartment of alimentary canal
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small intestines
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First portion of the small intestine
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Duodenum
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chyme from stomach mixes with digestive secretions from:
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1. pancreas
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pancreas secretes two proteases: |
1.typsin 2. chymotrypsin |
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bile is 'produced' in the:
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liver
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bile is 'stored' in the:
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gall bladder
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hepatic portal vein:
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carried nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine capillaries to the liver to the heart
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first pass effect
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affects drug bioabailability before it reaches general circulation
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fats break down into
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triglycerides
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triglycerides hydrolyzed into:
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fatty acids and monoglycerides
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fatty acids are absorbed into
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epithelial cells
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triglycerides are deposited into:
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lymphatic system (lacteal)
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blood glucose levels regulated by
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insulin and glucagon
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insulin signal leads to:
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glucose uptake into cells
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glucagon signal causes:
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liver to break down glycogen
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break down of glycogen:
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raised blood glucose levels
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satiety mediator:
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ventromedial hypothalamus
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ghrelin
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triggers hungry feeling
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peptideYY
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secreted by intestines, reduces appetite
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insulin
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from pancreatic beta cells, reduces appetite
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leptin
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produced by adipose tissue, reduces appetite
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where does the chemical / enzymatic digestion of carbs start in mammals?
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mouth
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diffusion:
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small molecules like O2 moves between cells
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circulatory system has:
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1. circulatory fluids
2. interconnecting vessels 3. muscular pump |
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circulatory fluids
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blood or hemolymph
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muscular pump
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heart
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circulatory systems can be
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open or closed
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what animals have "open circulatory" system:
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1. insects, arthropods, mollusks
2. have hemolymph |
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hemolymph is composed of:
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1. water
2. inorganic salts (K, Na, Ca) 3. organic molecules (lipids, proteins, carbs) |
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what animals have "closed circulatory" systems:
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1. annelids, cephalopods, invertebrates
2. have blood |
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blood consists of:
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1. plasma
2. red blood cells 3. white blood cells 4. platelets |
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Three main blood vessels:
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1. arteries
2. veins 3. capillaries |
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Arteries:
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carry blood AWAY from the heart
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Arteries branch into:
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arterioles which feed capillaries
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Capillaries:
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sites of chemical exchange between blood and interstitial fluid
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capillary beds flow into:
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venules
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venules converge to form:
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Veins
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veins:
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carry blood to the heart
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arteries and veins are defined by:
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direction of blood flow
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vertebrate hearts contain:
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two or more chambers
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blood enters through:
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atrium
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blood is pumped out through:
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ventricle
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single circulation:
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1. single circulation with two chambered heart 2. bony fish, rays, sharks |
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Single circulation: blood leaves the heart and:
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passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart
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double circulation:
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animals, amphibians, and mammals
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double circulation: O2 rich and O2 poor blood
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are pumped separately from different sides of the heart
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double circulation: advantages
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maintain higher blood pressure in the organs compared to single circulation
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right atrium and left atrium have:
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thin walls and collect blood arriving at the heart
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right ventricle and left ventricle have:
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thicker walls and contract more forcefully
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cardiac cycle: systole
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contraction-pumping phase
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cardiac cycle: diastole
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relaxation-filling phase
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pulse
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heart rate, measured as beats
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stroke volume
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amount of blood pumped in a single heart contraction
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cardiac output
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volume of blood pumped into circulation per minute
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sinoatrial node
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is the heart pacemaker
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arteries and veins have:
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1. endothelium
2. smooth muscle layer 3. connective tissue |
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arteries have:
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thicker walls; helps with blood pressure
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veins have:
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thinner walls and valves
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blood flow velocity
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relationship between blood flow and blood pressure
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blood velocity is slowest in
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capillary beds
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blood velocity slowest in capillary beds because:
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1. high resistance
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systolic pressure:
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during ventricular systole, highest pressure in arteries
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Diastolic pressure:
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pressure in the arteries during diastole, lower than systole
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capillary function:
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1. 5-10% filled at anytime
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two components of blood:
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plasma and cellular elements
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cardiovascular disease: plaques within arteries
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atherosclerosis
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respiratory system: pharynx
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directs air to trachea
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alveoli
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where gas exchange takes place
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tidal volume:
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volume of air inhaled with each breath
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blood pH is regulated by
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biocarbonate buffer
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high O2:
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lowers blood pH
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innate immunity
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1. barrier defenses
2. cellular defenses 3. inflammatory response |
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adaptive immunity
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1. activation of T cells and B cells
2. antibodies 2. humoral and cell-mediated responses |
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Disruptions in the immune system: |
1. Allergies 2. exercise and stress 3. HIV |
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immune system:
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structures and processes an organism has to protect itself against disease
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pathogens
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anything that causes diseases
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innate immunity: barrier defenses
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1. skin
2. mucous membranes that line respiratory, urinary, and reproductive |
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barriers hostile against microbes
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saliva, mucus, and tears
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lysozymes
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enzymes that damage bacterial cell walls
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Innate immunity: Cellular defenses
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1. neutrophils
2. macrophages 3. dendritic cells 4. eosinophils 5. natural killer cells |
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neutrophils
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circulate in the blood
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macrophages
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found in the spleen
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dendritic cells
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found in the skin
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eosinophils
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beneath mucosal surfaces
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natural killer cells
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detect abnormal proteins on cells and trigger cell death pathways
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how do cells in innate immunity identify pathogens?
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specialized set of proteins called "Toll-like receptors (TLR)s
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Lipolysaccharide
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TLR 4 (bacteria in cell wall)
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Flagellin
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TLR 5: specific bacteria flegella
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Unmethylated (CpG) DNA
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TLR 9: cystine and guanine
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dsRNA
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TLR 3: only thing that makes dnRNA is a virus
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cytokines:
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increase local blood flow to injury
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Adaptive immunity:
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1. only vertebrates have it
2. slow reaction, highly specific |
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Two main kinds of white blood cells (lymphocytes):
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1. T cells : Thymus
2. B cells: Bone marrow |
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Adaptive immunity characteristics: Four main points |
1. diversity of lymphocytes and antigen receptors 2. self immunity 3. B and T proliferate upon activation 4. immunological memory |
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Adaptive: Generating B and T cells diversity:
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1. combination of Variable, Joining, Constant segment produces light-chain polypeptide
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recombinase
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enzyme randomly sets up different combinations of V and J exons
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Adaptive: Self tolerance:
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1. B and T cells mature, are tested for self reactivity
2. if they react theyre destroyed |
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Adaptive: Proliferation of B cells and T cells
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1. binding of antigen triggers lymphocyte to replicate alot
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Adaptive: Two cell fates:
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1. memory cells
2. plasma cells |
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memory cells
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immunological memory
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plasma cells
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act against antigen by producing antibodies
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Adaptive: immunological memory
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1. long term protection against disease
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Immunological memory: Primary response
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first exposure causes first production of B and T cell effector forms
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Immunological memory: Secondary response
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1. second response triggers a faster, larger response
2. facilitated by memory cells 3. specific to antigen in primary response |
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B and T cells are activated:
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when antigens receptors on their surface bind to an antigen
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antigen
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can be one part of a molecule of a protein, from a bacteria or virus
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All the antigen receptors expressed by B and T cells are
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identical
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B cell's antigen receptor shape
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like a 'Y'
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Antigen B cells: Four subunits
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1. '2' heavy chains
2. '2' light chains |
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Regions are similar for all B cells
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Constant regions (C)
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Regions that provide specificity for an antigen
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Variable regions (V)
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B-cells antigen binds to a pathogens antigen and produces:
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Soluble form of the antigen receptor
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soluble form of B cell antigen receptor is an:
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antibody (immunoglobulin)
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T cell antigen receptor is made of two different subunits:
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Alpha and beta
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Each T cell antigen receptor subunit has:
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A constant (C) and a variable (V) region
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Major histocompatibility complex molecule:
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combines with a piece of pathogen protein
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Adaptive immunity: Humoral
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antibodies help eliminate toxins and pathogens
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Adaptive immunity: Cell-mediated
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specialized T cells destroy affected host cells
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helper T cells activate
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B cells and other T cells
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Helper T cells act on both humoral and cell mediated responses:
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indirectly
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Cytotoxic T cells
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secrete toxic proteins to kill infected cells that are presenting antigen fragments
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humoral response:
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B cells secrete antibodies
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Antibody function:
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mark pathogens for destruction or prevent pathogens from infecting host cells
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memory cells enable:
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secondary response
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allergies:
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hypersensitive response to antigens
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HIV infects |
decreases T cells in immune response
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short term stress:
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1. increased energy
2. increased blood pressure/breathing rate 3. changes in body by hormones |
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Long-term stress |
1. break down bodies proteins and fats 2. Na and H20 retention in kidneys 3. suppression of immune system |
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pheromones:
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chemicals that are released into the environment
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classes of hormones: Three mains groups
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1. polypeptides
2. amines 3. steroids |
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polypeptides
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1. insulin
2. water-soluble |
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Amines
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Epinephrine: water-soluble
Thyroxine: lipid- soluble |
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steroids
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1. cortisol
2. lipid soluble |
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water-soluble hormones: epinephrine
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1. secreted by adrenal medulla
2. activates signal receptor at liver 3. triggers intracellular signally cascade |
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lipid-soluble hormones: estradiol
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1. female sex hormone.
2. regulates estrous and menstruation |
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HPA axis releases:
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1. releasing hormone (CRF)
2. ACTH 3. glucocorticoids |
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pancreas releases:
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insulin
glucagon |
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Low pH of duodenum triggers:
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Secretin release
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Secretin signals pancreas to release
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bicarbonate into duodenum
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suckling sensation stimuli triggers:
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oxytocin release
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Sex development: Wolffian
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male duct
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Sexual development: Mullerian
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Female duct
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dendrites
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receive signals
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axons |
transmit signals |
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resting potential:
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-60mV
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higher concentration of ions found in extracellular fluid (outside neuron)
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Na+ and Cl-
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lower concentration of ions found in intracellular fluid (inside neuron)
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potassium
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Action potential: after incoming depolarizing signal:
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Na+ flows into the cell through voltage-gated Na channels
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Action potential: after action potential spike
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Na+ channels close, K+ channels open, K+ flows out of the cell and K channels close
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AP triggers opening of voltage gated:
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Ca+ channels
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What causes synaptic vesicles to release NT?
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influx of Ca+
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Acetylcholine
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involved in muscle movement stimulation, memory formation, controlling HR
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Amino acids: Glutamate
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neuronal excitation
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Amino acids: GABA |
neuronal inhibition |
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Biogenic amines: DA
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reward pathways
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Biogenic amines: serotonin
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mood, appetite, sleep
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Neuropeptides: substance P |
inflammation and pain
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diencephalon
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1. complex processing and planning
2. learning and memory 3. sensory processing |
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midbrain
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1. vision and hearing reflexes
2. arousal/alertness 3. temp regulation |
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hindbrain
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motor control
cardiac / respiration bladder control |
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PET scans show:
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areas that are more active
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Broca's area |
speech production |
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Wernicke's area
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speech comprehension
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Hypothalamus
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structure that connects the nervous system and endocrine system
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Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus:
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somatostatin oxytosin vasopressin GonadRH GrowthHRH |
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autonomic nervous system
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1. regulated smooth muscles and cardiac muscles
2. involuntary |
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motor system
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1. sends signals to skeletal muscles
2. voluntary behaviors |
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autonomic nervous system: two parts
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sympathetic
parasympathetic |
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sympathetic nervous system
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fight or flight
arousal and generating energy |
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parasympathetic
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rest and digest
calming down and relaxing |
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meninges
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dura mater
anachnoid mater
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dura mater
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thick; tough; connective tissue
outer layer |
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arachnoid mater
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delicate with lots of blood vessels and CSF
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pia mater
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1. thin and fibrous
2. impermeable to fluid 3. encloses CSF |
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Cerebral hemi: Superficial veins connect...
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into sinuses
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Sensory transduction:
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the conversion of stimulus energy into a chance in membrane potential
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Mechanoreceptors:
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physical changes: pressure, stretch, motion, and sound
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Chemoreceptors:
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sense the presence of a molecule in a solution
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How do chemoreceptors work?
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stimulus binds to chemoreceptor ---changes ion permeability -- causing change in membrane potential
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electromagnetic receptors:
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detect light, electricity, and magnetism
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photoreceptors:
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convert light into neural activity
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thermoreceptors:
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respond to heat and cold, help regulate body temperature at skin and at core
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Free nerve endings are linked with:
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thermoreceptors on skin
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pain receptors:
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detect stimuli associated with tissue damage
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skeletal muscles are sometimes called:
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striated muscles
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functional units of muscle:
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sacromeres
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force of muscle contraction controlled by:
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nervous system
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red muscle best for:
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endurance
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white muscle:
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strength
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myosin are:
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thick filaments
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actin are:
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thin filaments
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