Biology 156

Front 1

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

Back 1

energy cannot be created or destroyed. The amount of energy in the universe is constant. Energy can be transformed and used, but organisms do not make energy.

Front 2

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

Back 2

Energy conversions reduce the order of the universe and increase its entropy.

Front 3

Entropy is

Back 3

The amount of disorder in a system

Front 4

Endergonic reactions

Back 4

Require an input of energy and yield products high in potential energy.

Front 5

Energy

Back 5

The capacity to perform work

Front 6

Exergonic reaction

Back 6

releases energy

Front 7

Kinetic energy

Back 7

energy at work

Front 8

Potential energy

Back 8

stored energy

Front 9

Cellular respiration

Back 9

a type of exergonic reaction. It uses oxygen to convert the chemical energy stored in fuel molecules to a form of chemical energy that the cell can use to perform work. The three main stages are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

Front 10

Cellular metabolism

Back 10

The sum of endergonic and exergonic reactions.

Front 11

Energy coupling

Back 11

use of energy released from exergonic reactions to drive essential endergonic reactions

Front 12

Adenosine Triphosphate

Back 12

ATP. Adenosine consists of adenine, a nitrogenous base and ribose (5-carbon sugar). Triphosphate consists of a chain of 3 phosphate groups which are all negatively charged. It is the source of energy many cells use.

Front 13

Phosphorylation

Back 13

transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to some other molecule.

Front 14

Energy of Activation (Ea)

Back 14

The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start.

Front 15

Enzyme

Back 15

A protein that serves as a biological catalyst, changing the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed into a different molecule in the process. An enzyme does not add energy to a cellular reaction; it speeds up a reaction by lowering the EA barrier. Without enzymes, most metabolic reactions would occur too slowly to sustain life.

Front 16

ATP

Back 16

energy currency the cell uses to do chemical, mechanical and transport work.

Front 17

Redox reaction

Back 17

The movement of electrons from one molecule to another (oxidation-reduction).

Front 18

Oxidation

Back 18

loss of one or more electrons

Front 19

Reduction

Back 19

Gain of one or more electrons

Front 20

coenzyme

Back 20

Non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity.

Front 21

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)

Back 21

A coenzyme found in all living cells which is a dinucleoditde. (two nucleotides are joined through their phosphate groups) One nucleotide has an adenine base; one has nicotinamide. It is involved in redox reactions; carrying electrons from one reaction to another. It oxidizes in the reactions.

Front 22

Electron transport chain

Back 22

Electron carrier molecules that are involved in a series of redox reactions which electrons pass from carrier to carrier to the acceptor. They release energy to be made into ATP.

Front 23

Life is organized in a hierarchical fashion. Which one of the following sequences illustrates that hierarchy as it increases in complexity?

Back 23

molecule → cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism → population → community → ecosystem

Front 24

The tree in your backyard is home to two cardinals, a colony of ants, a wasp's nest (a colony of wasps), two squirrels, and millions of bacteria. Together, all of these organisms represent

Back 24

a community

Front 25

The ultimate source of energy flowing into nearly all ecosystems is

Back 25

sunlight

Front 26

A consumer eating a producer represents

Back 26

a transfer of chemical nutrients and energy.

Front 27

The formation of systems typically results in the appearance of novel characteristics called

Back 27

emergent properties

Front 28

A scientist examining a group of cells under the microscope notices the presence of nuclei within these cells. Chemical tests reveal that each cell is photosynthetic and is surrounded by a wall composed of cellulose. These cells must come from an organism that is a member of the Kingdom..?

Back 28

Plantae.

Front 29

Which one of the following statements is not consistent with Darwin's mechanism of natural selection?

Back 29

Individual organisms exhibit genetic change during their life spans to better fit their environment.

Front 30

A hypothesis is

Back 30

a tentative answer to some question.

Front 31

A scientist performs a controlled experiment. This means that

Back 31

two experiments are conducted, one differing from the other by only a single variable.

Front 32

The nucleus of an atom contains

Back 32

protons and neutrons.

Front 33

Your instructor asks you to look into your microscope to see a prokaryotic cell. You will be looking for a cell that

Back 33

Has a membrane, but no nucleus.

Front 34

Which of the following statements about radioactive isotopes is/are true?

Back 34

The energy emitted by radioactive isotopes can break chemical bonds and cause molecular damage in cells.

Front 35

The smallest unit of an element is

Back 35

An atom

Front 36

In conducting a proper scientific experiment, which of the following would you not do?

Back 36

Change the data that you collect so that it matches how you thought the experiment would come out.

Front 37

A(n) __________ forms when two atoms share electrons.

Back 37

covalent bond

Front 38

The term biodiversity refers to

Back 38

the tremendous variety of life all around us on Earth.

Front 39

In plants, the transport of water from roots to leaves against the force of gravity is possible due to this property of water:

Back 39

cohesion

Front 40

The ability of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds with other water molecules is critical to:
-evaporative cooling of skin surfaces.
-the movement of water from the roots of a tree to its leaves.
-the milder temperatures of coastal regions compared to inland areas.
-the ability of certain insects to walk on the surface of water.
-all of these factors.

Back 40

all of these factors

Front 41

As ice melts,

Back 41

hydrogen bonds are broken.

Front 42

A solute is

Back 42

The substance that is dissolved in a solution

Front 43

Compared to a solution of pH3, a solution of pH1 is

Back 43

100 times more acidic

Front 44

Carbon is able to form an immense diversity of organic molecules because of carbon's:
-tendency to form covalent bonds.
-ability to bond with up to four other atoms.
-capacity to form single and double bonds.
-ability to bond together to form extensive, branched, or unbranched carbon skeletons.
-All of the choices are correct.

Back 44

All of the choices are correct.

Front 45

Many names for sugars end in the suffix

Back 45

-ose

Front 46

Which one of the following lists contains only polysaccharides?

sucrose, starch, and cellulose
starch, amino acids, and glycogen
cellulose, starch, and glycogen
nucleotides, glycogen, and cellulose
fructose, cellulose, and glucose

Back 46

cellulose, starch, and glycogen

Front 47

A diet high in animal products may increase the risk for atherosclerosis. This is because

Back 47

most animal fats are saturated and some animal products contain trans fats.

Front 48

Sucrose is formed

Back 48

from two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis.

Front 49

DNA differs from RNA because DNA

Back 49

contains thymine in place of uracil.

Front 50

Glucose molecules are to starch as __________ are to proteins.

Back 50

amino acids

Front 51

Nucleotides:
-contain nitrogenous bases.
-contain sugar molecules.
-contain phosphate groups.
-can be linked together to form nucleic acids.
-All of the choices are correct.

Back 51

all of the choices are correct

Front 52

Genetic information is encoded in the

Back 52

sequence of nucleotides in DNA.

Front 53

Chromosome

Back 53

Long, thin fibers (chromatin) containing the cell's DNA and protein molecules.

Front 54

What phrase did "every cell from a cell" come from and who?

Back 54

"Where a cell exists, there must have been a preexisting cell" from Rudolf Virchow.

Front 55

Binary fission

Back 55

Dividing in half; cell division of prokaryotic cells.

Front 56

Interphase

Back 56

It is the time when the cell synthesizes new molecules and organelles
b. By the G2 phase, the cell has doubled most of its earlier contents and the cytoplasm contains two centrosomes.
c. Within the nucleus, the chromosomes are duplicated, but they cannot be distinguished individually because they are still in the form of loosely packed chromatin.
d. The nucleus also contains one or more nucleoli, and indication that the cell is actively making proteins. (Nucleoli are where the parts of ribosomes are assembled before they cytoplasm)

Front 57

Prophase

Back 57

a. Changes occur in the nucleus and cytoplasm. The chromatin fibers in the nucleus become more tightly coiled and folded, forming discrete chromosomes that can be seen with the light microscope.
b. The nucleoli disappear. Each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister chromatids joined together with a narrow waist at the centromere. .
c. In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle begins to form as microtubules rapidly grow out from the centrosomes, which begin to move away from each other.

Front 58

Prometaphase

Back 58

1. Prometaphase
a. The nuclear envelope breaks into fragments and disappears.
b. Microtubules emerging from the centrosomes at the poles of the spindle reach the chromosomes and are now highly condensed.
c. At the centromere region, each sister chromatid has a protein structure called a kinetochore.
d. Forces exerted by protein “motors” associated with spindle microtubules move the chromosomes toward the center of the cell.

Front 59

Metaphase

Back 59

a. The mitotic spindle is fully formed, with its poles at opposite ends of the cell.
b. The chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate (an imaginary plane equidistant between the two poles of the spindle) and all of their centromeres are lined up on it.
c. For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the two sister chromatids face opposite poles of the spindle.
d. The microtubules attached to a particular chromatid all come from one pole of the spindle, and those attached to its sister chromatid come from the opposite pole.

Front 60

Anaphase

Back 60

a. Begins when the two centromeres of each chromosome come apart, separating the sister chromatids. Once separate, each sister chromatid is considered a full-fledged (daughter) chromosome.
b. Motor proteins of the kinetochores (powered by ATP) walk the daughter chromosomes, centromere-first, along the microtubules toward opposite poles of the cell. As this happens, the spindle microtubules attached to the kinetochores shorten, but the ones not attached lengthen.
c. The poles move further apart and thus the cell lengthens.
d. Anaphase ends when the collections of chromosomes are at the two poles of the cell.

Front 61

Telophase

Back 61

a. Roughly the reverse of prophase. The cell continues to elongate.
b. Daughter nuclei appear at the two poles of the cell as nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes.
c. Meanwhile, the chromatin fibers of each chromosome uncoil, and nucleoli reappear.
d. At the end of Telophase, the mitotic spindle disappears.

Front 62

Cytokinesis

Back 62

a. It is the division of the cytoplasm and usually occurs along with Telophase, with two daughter cells completely separating soon after the end of mitosis. In animal cells, Cytokinesis involves a cleavage furrow, which pinches the cell in two.

Front 63

Most animal cells exhibit anchorage dependence. What is this?

Back 63

A cell must be in contact with a solid surface (such as the extracellular matrix of a tissue) in order to divide.

Front 64

What are growth factors?

Back 64

proteins secreted by certain body cells that stimulate other cells to divide.

Front 65

density-dependent inhibition is..

Back 65

When cells stop dividing from touching other cells.

Front 66

Carcinoma

Back 66

cancer that originates in the external or internal coverings of the body, such as the skin or the lining of intestine

Front 67

Sarcoma

Back 67

arise in tissues that support the body, such as bone and muscle

Front 68

Leukemia and Lymphoma

Back 68

Cancers of blood-forming tissues, such as bone marrow, spleen and lymph nodes

Front 69

Somatic cell

Back 69

cell in the human body; consisting of 46 chromosomes; 23 matched (homologous) pairs

Front 70

Locus

Back 70

location on a chromosome

Front 71

autosome

Back 71

the 22 pairs of chromosomes in the body that are not the sex chromosomes (1 pair of sex chromosomes in the total of 23 pairs)

Front 72

Diploid cell

Back 72

Any cell with two homologous sets of chromosomes

Front 73

Diploid number

Back 73

total number of chromosomes (abbreviated 2n). The diploid number for humans: 46

Front 74

Gamete

Back 74

sex cells

Front 75

Haploid cell

Back 75

A cell with a single chromosomes set. For humans it is 23 (abbreviated n)

Front 76

Zygote

Back 76

fertilized egg; it is diploid

Front 77

Interphase of meiosis

Back 77

1. Chromosomes duplicate. At the end, each chromosome consists of two genetically identical sister chromatids attached together. The chromosomes are not yet visible under the light microscope. The centrosomes has duplicated.

Front 78

Prophase one of meiosis

Back 78

1. Most complex phase of meiosis and typically occupies over 90% of the time required for cell division. The chromatin coils up; individual chromosomes become visible under the light microscope.
2. Synapsis: homologous chromosomes, each compressed of two sister chromatids come together as pairs. The resulting structure, 4 chromatids, is called a tetrad. Chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments in a process called crossing over, which rearranges genetic information.
3. The nucleoli disappear and a spindle begins to form. The nuclear envelope breaks and the chromosome tetrads, captured by spindle microtubules, are moved toward the center of the cell.

Front 79

Metaphase one of meiosis

Back 79

1. The chromosome tetrads are aligned on the metaphase plate, midway between the two poles of the spindle. Each chromosome is condensed and thick, with its sister chromatid still attached at their centromere. Spindle microtubules are attached at kinetochores at the centromeres. In each tetrad, the homologous chromosomes are held together at sites of crossing over.

Front 80

Anaphase one of meiosis

Back 80

1. Marked by the migration of chromosomes toward the two poles in the cell. Only the tetrads split up, so there are still two doubled chromosomes (haploid number) moving toward each spindle pole

Front 81

Telophase I and Cytokinesis of meiosis

Back 81

1. The chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell. When they finish their journey, each pole has a haploid chromosome set. Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
2. Following Telophase I of some organisms, the chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear envelope reforms, and there is an interphase before meiosis II begins, but no chromosome duplication occurs between telophase I and the onset of meiosis II.

Front 82

Meiosis II

Back 82

It is essentially the same as mitosis

Front 83

Light microscopes

Back 83

use light and glass lenses to magnify an image.

Front 84

A scanning electron microscope is used to study __________, whereas a transmission electron microscope is used to study __________.

Back 84

cell surfaces . . . internal cell structures

Front 85

Which of the following statements is consistent with the Cell Theory?

Back 85

The cell is the basic structural and functional unity of life.

Front 86

We can characterize the fluid mosaic model of a membrane as ____________ floating in a sea of ___________

Back 86

proteins; lipids

Front 87

Large, round cells can overcome surface area to volume problems by

Back 87

becoming smaller, narrower or flatter.

Front 88

As cell size increases, the

Back 88

volume increases faster than the surface area.

Front 89

Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are __________ cells.

Back 89

prokaryotic

Front 90

The membranous compartmentalization of a cell

Back 90

allows different metabolic processes to occur simultaneously.

Front 91

If a biologist said that eukaryotic cells get their power from bacteria, they would be referring to

Back 91

the mitochondria in our cells that may have originated as endosymbiotic bacteria.

Front 92

Long fibers of DNA and protein are called a

Back 92

chromatin

Front 93

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Back 93

stores calcium ions in muscle cells

Front 94

Secretory proteins are

Back 94

released from the cell through the plasma membrane

Front 95

The Golgi apparatus

Back 95

stores, modifies, and packages proteins.

Front 96

Lysosomes:
-help to digest worn-out or damaged organelles.
-recycle materials within the cell.
-fuse with food vacuoles to expose nutrients to lysosomal enzymes.
-destroy harmful bacteria engulfed by white blood cells.

Back 96

All of the choices are correct

Front 97

Contractile vacuoles

Back 97

prevent cells from bursting as a result of the influx of excess water.

Front 98

Cilia differ from flagella in that

Back 98

cilia are typically more numerous and shorter than flagella.

Front 99

Plants with rigid cell walls are unable to do which process?

Back 99

phagocytosis

Front 100

Which of the following cell structures is not associated with the breakdown of harmful substances or substances that are no longer needed by the cell?

Back 100

mitochondria

Front 101

Small, nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules such as fatty acids

Back 101

easily pass through a membrane's lipid bilayer.

Front 102

Diffusion does not require the cell to expend ATP. Therefore, diffusion is considered a type of

Back 102

passive transport

Front 103

If you were to transfer a saltwater, single-celled protist to fresh water, which of the following is likely to happen?

Back 103

the cell will swell and burst

Front 104

Osmosis can be defined as

Back 104

the diffusion of water across a membrane

Front 105

If you were to transfer a freshwater, single-celled protist to saltwater, which of the following is likely to happen?

Back 105

the cell will shrink

Front 106

Which one of the following statements is true?
Cells placed in a hypotonic solution will swell.

Back 106

Cells placed in a hypotonic solution will swell.

Front 107

A cell that has neither a net gain nor a net lose of water when it is immersed in a solution is

Back 107

isotonic to its environment

Front 108

The act of a white blood cell engulfing a bacterium is

Back 108

phagocytosis

Front 109

Phagocytosis is to eating as pinocytosis is to

Back 109

drinking

Front 110

What property of a compound light microscope enables a person to change objectives without major focusing adjustments?
a)resolving power
b)magnification
c)parfocal
d)focusing
e)resolution

Back 110

c) parfocal

Front 111

How does closing the iris diaphragm affect image brightness and contrast?
a)decreases both
b)increases both
c)decreases brightness and increases contrast
d)increases brightness and decreases contrast
e)decreases brightness but has no effect on contrast

Back 111

c) decreases brightness and increases contrast

Front 112

Which of the following objectives has the shortest working distance?
a) 4X
b) 10X
c) 45X
d) 100X

Back 112

100x

Front 113

What effect will changing from the low power objective to the high power objective have on the field of view of a specimen?
a)increase
b)decrease
c)no effect

Back 113

b) decrease

Front 114

If the letter p is placed under the microscope in the normal reading position, which of the following orientations of the letter would the viewer see?

Back 114

d

Front 115

Which of the following procedures should be done just prior to viewing through the compound microscope?
a) clean all lenses with lens paper
b) turn the light on
c) adjust the iris diaphragm
d) all of the above

Back 115

b) turn the light on

Front 116

Two parts of the microscope that regulate the amount of light visible through the ocular are the:
a)fine and coarse adjustment knobs
b)ocular and objective lenses
c)illuminator and revolving nosepiece
d)condenser and iris diaphragm

Back 116

d)condenser and iris diaphragm

Front 117

Initial focusing of any slide is done under the:
a) scanning or low power objective
b) high power objective
c) oil immersion objective
d) depends upon the size of the specimen

Back 117

a) scanning or low power objective

Front 118

Under which magnification would the distance between the objective and the specimen being observed be the least?
40X, 100X, 450X or 1000X

Back 118

1000x

Front 119

What is the total magnification produced by a microscope, using a 10X ocular lens and a 10X objective lens?
a) 10X
b) 20X
c) 100X
d) 1000X

Back 119

c) 100x

Front 120

Turning which of the following knobs moves the objective lenses the greatest vertical distance?
a)coarse focus knob
b)fine focus knob

Back 120

a) coarse focus knob

Front 121

Resolution is the ability to see two objects as separate.
TRUE or FALSE

Back 121

TRUE

Front 122

Which of the following regulates the amount of light passing through the slide specimen on the microscope stage?
a)nosepiece
b)objective lens
c)iris diaphragm lever ?
d)fine focus knob

Back 122

c) iris diaphragm lever

Front 123

An increase in magnification causes
a)a decrease in the field of view.
b)a decrease in the working distance.
c)a decrease in the depth of field.
d)all of the above.

Back 123

d) all of the above

Front 124

Working distance is the
a)distance from your house to your job.
b)distance the microscope nosepiece travels using the coarse focus knob.
c)distance from the bottom of the objective lens to the specimen.
d)distance the specimen can travel across the microscope stage.

Back 124

c) distance from the bottom of the objective lens to the specimen.

Front 125

When adjusting a binocular microscope for differences between right and left eyes, focus the microscope with the fine adjustment while viewing only with the right eye (fixed ocular).
TRUE or FALSE

Back 125

TRUE

Front 126

When using the oil immersion lens, you should raise the objective lenses for easy application of an oil droplet to the slide.

TRUE or FALSE

Back 126

FALSE

Front 127

Why must a small object seen through the ocular lens be centered in the field of view, before changing to a higher power objective lens?
a) to prevent damage to the objective lens
b) to compensate for the decrease in resolving power of the lens
c) to prevent its disappearance due to the decrease in the field of view
d) to prevent eyestrain

Back 127

c) to prevent its disappearance due to the decrease in the field of view

Front 128

A parfocal microscope allows you to quickly focus using the low power or scanning lens and then, to switch to a higher power lens with only a minimal adjustment of the fine focus knob.
True or False

Back 128

TRUE

Front 129

Why is it necessary to adjust the amount of light after changing objective lenses?
a)Higher magnification lenses require more light.
b)Proper lighting is needed to see specimen details.
c)The lens aperture decreases with higher magnification lenses.
d)All of the above.

Back 129

d) all of the above

Front 130

Which objective would you use to locate a specimen on a slide?
a) lowest power available
b) high power
c) oil immersion
d) any of the ojectives could be used with equal success

Back 130

d) any

Front 131

Which of the following parts of the microscope would increase the depth of field?
a)ocular
b)high power objective
c)fine focus
d)low power objective

Back 131

d) low power objective

Front 132

Depth of field is best demonstrated with
a)a slide showing the letter e.
b)a slide containing overlapping threads.
c)the light turned completely off.
d)the oil immersion lens.

Back 132

b) a slide containing overlapping threads

Front 133

According to __________, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
a) Aristotle's first principle
b) the first law of thermodynamics
c) the second law of thermodynamics
d) the third law of thermodynamics
e) Einstein's law of relativity

Back 133

b) The first law of Thermodynamics

Front 134

Which one of the following processes is endergonic?
a) the burning of wood
b) the release of heat from the breakdown of glucose
c) the synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water
d) the breakdown of glucose
e) cellular respiration

Back 134

c) the synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water

Front 135

Anything that prevents ATP formation will most likely
a) result in cell death.
b) force the cell to rely on lipids for energy.
c) result in the conversion of kinetic energy to potential energy.
d) force the cell to rely on ADP for energy.
e) have no effect on the cell.

Back 135

a) result in cell death

Front 136

Which one of the following is true about the ATP molecule?
a) It contains two phosphate groups.
b) Extremely stable bonds link the second and third phosphate groups.
c) It contains the six-carbon sugar hexose.
d) It contains a nitrogenous base molecule called adenine.
e) None of the choices are correct.

Back 136

d) it contains a nitrogenous base called adenine

Front 137

When an enzyme catalyzes a reaction?
a) it lowers the activation energy of the reaction.
b) it raises the activation energy of the reaction.
c) it becomes a product.
d) it acts as a reactant.
e) None of the choices are correct.

Back 137

a)

Front 138

Which one of the following is false?
a) An enzyme's function depends on its three-dimensional shape.
b) Enzymes are very specific for certain substrates.
c) Enzymes are used up in chemical reactions.
d) Enzymes emerge unchanged from the reactions they catalyze.
e) An enzyme binds to its substrate at the enzyme's active site.

Back 138

c)

Front 139

Which of the following is a coenzyme?
a) zinc
b) Vitamin B6
c) iron
d) iodine
e) hydrogen ions

Back 139

b)

Front 140

Bacterial production of the enzymes needed for the synthesis of the amino acid tryptophan declines with increasing levels of tryptophan and increases as tryptophan levels decline. This is an example of
a) competitive inhibition.
b) noncompetitive inhibition.
c) feedback inhibition.
d) positive feedback.
e) irreversible inhibition

Back 140

c)

Front 141

The second law of thermodynamics states that____________.
a) energy can be transformed into matter and, because of this, we can get something for nothing.
b) energy can be destroyed only during nuclear reactions, such as those that occur inside the sun.
c) if energy is gained by one region of the universe, another place in the universe also must gain energy to maintain the balance of nature.
d) energy tends to become increasingly dispersed and unusable.

Back 141

d)

Front 142

ATP is
a) the energy currency of a cell
b) produced by the destruction of ADP
c) expended in the process of photosynthesis
d) produced during the phosphorylation of any organic compound

Back 142

a)

Front 143

Which statement is not true?
a) Entropy does not apply to living organisms as long as they take in energy and maintain their organization.
b) The amount of energy in the web of life is greatest among the plants that capture solar energy.
c) A state of maximum entropy will never occur.
d) Entropy applies at the molecular level as well as at the organismal level.
e) Entropy is a measure of the dispersement of energy after an energy change.

Back 143

c)

Front 144

The active site of an enzyme
a) is where the coenzyme is located.
b) is a specific bulge or protuberance on an enzyme.
c) is a groove or crevice on the structure of the enzyme.
d) will react with only one substrate no matter how many molecules may resemble the shape of the substrate.
e) rigidly resists any alteration of its shape.

Back 144

c) is a groove or crevice on the structure of the enzyme.

Front 145

The term anaerobic means
a) without bacteria.
b) without ATP.
c) without CO2.
d) with O2.
e) without O2.

Back 145

e)

Front 146

The processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are complementary. During these energy conversions, some energy is
a) lost in the form of heat.
b) created in the form of heat.
c) used to create light.
d) All of the choices are correct.
e) None of the choices are correct

Back 146

a)

Front 147

Which one of the following statements is false? Cellular respiration
a) consumes glucose.
b) is a single chemical reaction with just one step.
c) produces water.
d) produces carbon dioxide.
e) releases heat.

Back 147

b)

Front 148

During cellular respiration, the energy in glucose
a) becomes stored in molecules of ammonia.
b) is used to manufacture glucose.
c) is released all at once.
d) is carried by electrons.
e) None of the choices are correct.

Back 148

d)

Front 149

Oxidation is the __________, and reduction is the __________.
a) gain of electrons; loss of electrons
b) loss of electrons; gain of electrons
c) loss of oxygen; gain of oxygen
d) gain of oxygen; loss of oxygen
e) gain of protons; loss of protons

Back 149

b)

Front 150

Pyruvate
a) forms at the end of glycolysis.
b) is the molecule that starts the citric acid cycle.
c) is the end product of oxidative phosphorylation.
d) is the end product of chemiosmosis.
e) is a six-carbon molecule.

Back 150

a)

Front 151

During cellular respiration, glucose is converted into two pyruvic acid molecules. These molecules
a) are each converted into a two-carbon molecule joined to a coenzyme A molecule.
b) each lose a carbon atom, which is released as CO2.
c) together contain less chemical energy than was found in the original glucose molecule.
d) are oxidized.
e) All of the choices are correct.

Back 151

e)

Front 152

The end products of the citric acid cycle include all of the following except
a) CO2
b) pyruvic acid.
c) ATP.
d) NADH.
e) FADH2.

Back 152

b)

Front 153

Which of the following statements about the inner mitochondrial membrane is false?
a) ATP synthase is associated with it.
b) It plays a role in the production of pyruvic acid.
c) Electron carriers are associated with it.
d) It is involved in chemiosmosis.
e) A gradient of H+ exists across it.

Back 153

b)

Front 154

Bacteria that are unable to survive in the presence of oxygen are called
a) strict anaerobes.
b) aerobes.
c) facultative anaerobes.
d) chemosynthetic bacteria.
e) microaerophiles.

Back 154

a)

Front 155

Muscle soreness associated with strenuous exercise is at least partly due to
a) an excess of ATP that builds up during vigorous exercise.
b) the presence of lactic acid produced during fermentation in muscle cells.
c) the large amount of carbon dioxide that builds up in the muscle.
d) the accumulation of alcohol from anaerobic respiration.
e) None of the choices are correct.

Back 155

b)

Front 156

The terms “cristae” and “matrix” are associated with which cellular function(s)?
a) Glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation
b) Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
c) Glycolysis and Krebs cycle
d) Glycolysis only
e) Oxidative phosphorylation only

Back 156

b)

Front 157

Which of the following statements about glycolysis is correct?
a) Glycolysis occurs in the mitochondria.
b) Glycolysis happens to glucose only.
c) Glycolysis results in the production of citric acid and occurs in the Golgi body.
d) Glycolysis results in the production of pyruvate and occurs in the cytoplasm

Back 157

d)

Front 158

During respiration, the greatest amount of ATP is produced during
a) glycolysis.
b) acetyl-CoA formation.
c) the Krebs cycle.
d) oxidative phosphorylation.

Back 158

d)

Front 159

The location of the electron transport system in eukaryotic cells is
a) on the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
b) on the inner membrane of the chloroplasts.
c) throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
d) on the inner portion of the plasma membrane.

Back 159

a)

Front 160

The major function of the inner membrane of the mitochondrion is the production of ATP. To carry out this function, the mitochondrion must have all of the following except
a) membrane-bound electron transfer chains.
b) enzymes for glycolysis.
c) ATP synthase enzymes imbedded in the membrane.
d) enzymes for the Krebs cycle.

Back 160

b)

Front 161

The oxygen we breathe in is needed for the process of respiration. Which of the following is the major role of oxygen in respiration?
a) Oxygen is needed to start glycolysis.
b) Oxygen carries electrons to the electron transfer chains in the mitochondria.
c) Oxygen is the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transfer chain.
d) Oxygen combines with free carbons to form carbon dioxide.

Back 161

c)

Front 162

The term "phosphorylation" refers to the
a) use of an enzyme to break down ATP.
b) transfer of a phosphate to a substrate - like ADP.
c) taking away of phosphate molecules from enzymes.
d) second law of thermodynamics relating to phosphorous function.
e) subtraction of a phosphate from a substrate.

Back 162

b)

Front 163

Darwin's Origin of species inferred that there is an unequal reproductive success among individuals from what two observations?

Back 163

Individual variation (vary in heritable traits) and overproduction and competition. He called the unequal reproductive success natural selection and concluded that the product of natural selection is evolutionary adaptation (the accumulation of favorable variations in a population over time)

Front 164

State the four chemical elements essential to life that make up 96 percent of living matter

Back 164

Oxygen (65%), Carbon (18.5%), Hydrogen (9.5%), Nitrogen (3.3%)

Front 165

List and describe the steps involved in solving a problem using hypothesis-based science.

Back 165

Observe --> question --> hypothesis --> prediction --> test --> results

Front 166

List the three domains of life and distinguish between each domain

Back 166

1) Bacteria (prokaryotes) are unicellular and microscopic.
2) Archaea are prokaryotes as well and unicellular and microscopic.
3) Eukarya are multicellular and larger than prokaryotes. The four kingdoms with in it are Fungi which include yeast, mushrooms and molds. They are mostly decomposers (breaking down dead organisms and organic wastes and absorbing the nutrients). Animalia eat food through ingestion (eating other organisms) and motile and lack rigid cell walls. Plantae is plants which produce their own food through photosynthesis and have rigid cell walls made of cellulose. Protists are single celled and some make their food through photosynthesis but some consume other organisms and are multicellular.

Front 167

2. Explain how electron configuration influences the chemical properties of an atom.

Back 167

Electrons that are not full in their electron shells tend to interact with other atoms. The innermost shell is full with two electrons and the outermost can have up to 8.

Front 168

Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a covalent or ionic bond.

Back 168

Hydrogen bonds are weak chemical bonds that are polar which means they have an unequal sharing of electrons and the partial negative atoms makes the other atom partially positive.
Covalent bonds are the equal sharing of electrons.
Ionic bonds are the bonding of ions. Ions are atoms with different numbers of electrons; making them have an electrical charge.

Front 169

Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment that supports all life.

Back 169

The hydrogen bonds in water make it cohesive, which means they stick together. And they have high surface tension, meaning it is difficult to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. The hydrogen bonds moderate temperature. Water is able to absorb and store heat while warming up only a few degrees because of the hydrogen bonds.

Front 170

Explain the basis for the pH scale.

Back 170

0-14. 0 is most acidic; 14 is most basic. Water and human blood is 7. Each number is 10x more acidic than the lower number. A compound that donates hydrogen ions to a solution is an acid and one that accepts hydrogen ions and removes them from solutions is a base

Front 171

List and describe the four major classes of organic compounds

Back 171

They are all macromolecules.
1) Carbohydrates and sugars. Carbohydrate monomers (single unit sugars) are monosaccharides held together by a dehydration synthesis.
2) Lipids are diverse compounds that consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by nonpolar covalent bonds. They are not attracted to water molecules since they are nonpolar; they are hydrophobic. Phospholipids are major components in the cell membrane and have two fatty acid tails that are hydrophobic and their head is hydrophilic and has a phosphate. The hydrophobic interior is one reason membranes are selectively permeable. Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules are soluble in lipids and can easily pass through membranes
3) Proteins can consist of thousands of polymers (amino acids) which have carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Proteins can be enzymes, hormones, antibodies or oxygen-carrying molecules. They have four structures: primary (the amino acid’s peptide bonds sequence), secondary (the shapes [alpha helix or beta pleat] which are held by weak hydrogen bonds), tertiary structure (the overall 3-D shape) and the quaternary structure (need to have two or more polypeptide chains or subunits). They are a carbon atom, amino group, carboxyl group a hydrogen atom and an R group.
4) Nucleic acids can be either DNA or RNA. They have a phosphate group, nitrogenous base an either deoxyribose sugar or ribose sugar. DNA has A, G, T or C and RNA has A, C, G or U. They are twisted in a double-helix and they have a sugar-phosphate backbone as the legs of the ladder, nitrogenous bases paired together as the steps.

Front 172

Cite the key features of the Cell Theory.

Back 172

The Cell Theory was first suggested by Schleiden and Schwann around 1830. All organisms consist of cells, come from cells, cells are the basic unit of life.

Front 173

Contrast the general features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Back 173

1) Prokaryotic cells have flagella which propel the prokaryotes through liquids, ribosomes which are tiny structures that make proteins, capsule which surrounds the cell wall and protects the cell, cell wall, plasma membrane which is the inside liquid of the cell, pili which help the prokaryote stick to surfaces and a nucleoid region which consists of the DNA.
2) 2) Eukaryotic cells have organelles which are in the plasma membrane of the cell.
The organelles include the smooth endoplasmic reticulum which lack ribosomes and it synthesizes lipids (such as fatty acids, phospholipids and steroids) and it can process harmful substances.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum makes membranes and proteins and has ribosomes on it. The polypeptide chain of proteins is synthesized in the ribosomes and it passes into the ER where it folds into its 3-D shape. Short chains of sugars are linked to the polypeptide making the molecule a glycoprotein, the ER then package it into a transport vesicle when it is ready to exit the ER. It then travels to the Golgi apparatus.
The nucleus of the cell is the genetic control center. It contains the DNA and directs protein synthesis. Nuclear DNA is attached to proteins, forming long fibers called chromatin. Each fiber is a chromosome. The nucleus is in a nuclear envelope and the nucleolus is in the nucleus.
The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts and ships cell products. It receives products from the rough ER and modifies them.
Lysosomes are digestive compartments within the cell. They digest wastes. The rough ER sends things to the Golgi apparatus through a transport vesicle, the Golgi modifies it, and then the lysosome engulfs damaged organelles and recycles them.
Vacuoles work the same as lysosomes.

Front 174

Describe the nucleus of eukaryotic cells in terms of structure and function.

Back 174

The nucleus of the cell is the genetic control center. It contains the DNA and directs protein synthesis. Nuclear DNA is attached to proteins, forming long fibers called chromatin. Each fiber is a chromosome. The nucleus is in a nuclear envelope and the nucleolus is in the nucleus.

Front 175

Describe the organelles associated with the endomembrane system, and explain the general function of each.

Back 175

ER, lysosomes, golgi apparatus, vacuoles and mitochondria.

Front 176

Compare and contrast the structure and function of mitochondria and chloroplasts

Back 176

Chloroplasts are present in plants and convert solar energy to chemical energy. They have stroma, inner and outer membranes, granum which are stacks of discs which is where the chlorophyll traps solar energy, and intermembrane spade.
Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food. They have outer membrane, intermembrane, inner membrane, cristae (folds on the inside which contain electron transport chains) and matrix which is the space on the inside between the cristae.

Front 177

List several surface structures of cells and explain how they help cells survive.

Back 177

The extracellular matrix of cells is a sticky layer of glycoproteins. It helps hold cells together and can have protective and supportive functions. Junctions enable cells to stick together, anchoring junctions rivet cells. Gap junctions enable small molecules to flow between neighboring cells.

Front 178

Describe the essential structure and function of the cell membrane.

Back 178

The plasma membrane forms a boundary between the living cell and its surroundings and controls the traffic of molecules into and out of the cell. It takes in substances the cell needs and disposes of wastes. It is selectively permeable.
-It is a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins

Front 179

Explain the forces behind the passive diffusion across membranes.

Back 179

-Passive transport- does not require work by the cell.
-Diffusion- the tendency of particles to spread out evenly in an available space, moving from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated. It requires no work by the cell. It results from kinetic energy (random motion) of atoms and molecules.

Front 180

Explain the mechanisms by which substances move across membranes against a concentration gradient.

Back 180

Active transport usually happens across the cell membrane. There are thousands of proteins embedded in the cell's lipid bilayer. Those proteins do much of the work in active transport. They are positioned to cross the membrane so one part is on the inside of the cell and one part is on the outside. Only when they cross the bilayer are they able to move molecules and ions in and out of the cell. The membrane proteins are very specific. One protein that moves glucose will not move calcium (Ca) ions. There are hundreds of types of these membrane proteins in the many cells of your body.

Many times, proteins have to work against a concentration gradient. That term means they are pumping something (usually ions) from areas of lower to higher concentration. This happens a lot in neurons. The membrane proteins are constantly pumping ions in and out to get the membrane of the neuron ready to transmit electrical impulses.

Front 181

Phosphorylation

Back 181

is the addition of a phosphate (PO4) group to a protein or other organic molecule. Phosphorylation activates or deactivates many protein enzymes, causing or preventing the mechanisms of diseases such as cancer and diabetes.

Front 182

Describe how large substances can be imported into or exported from a cell by being wrapped in a membrane.

Back 182

This is done by endocytosis and exocytosis. Exocytosis is when a membrane-enclosed vesicle filled with macromolecules moves to the plasma membrane. Once there, the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and the vesicle's contents spill out of the cell. For example, when we cry, tear glands use exocytosis to export salty solutions containing proteins out of the body.
Endocytosis is when a cell takes in macromolecules or other particles by forming vesicles or vacuoles from its plasma membrane. The three types: phagocytosis (eating) is when the molecule wraps around the prey and packages it within a vacuole and the vacuole fuses with a lysosome. Pinosytosis is cellular drinking and it is when the cell takes in liquids through vesicles and is not specific. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is when the cell forms a pit in the plasma membrane which is lined with receptor proteins that have picked up particular molecules from the surroundings and the pit will pinch closed to form a vesicle that will carry the molecules into the cytoplasm.

Front 183

State the first and second laws of Thermodynamics and explain how energy is transferred from one substance to another.

Back 183

The first law of thermodynamics:
energy cannot be created nor destroyed and the total amount of energy in the universe is constant; it can be transformed and transferred.
The second law of thermodynamics states that some energy is converted to heat and the amount of disorder in a system; entropy.

Front 184

Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions.

Back 184

Exergonic reactions release energy and begin with reactants who contain more energy than the product. An example is burning wood and cellular respiration.

Front 185

Describe the function of ATP in the cell.

Back 185

ATP shuttles chemical energy and drives cellular work. The ATP cycle starts by the hydrolysis of ATP which is an exergonic reaction. This is done by transferring a phosphate group to another molecule which is called phosphorylation and most cellular work depends on ATP energizing molecules by phosphorylating them (that is, donating a phosphate group and then ATP becomes ADP since it only has 2 phosphates)

Front 186

Describe the function of enzymes in biological systems.

Back 186

Enzymes speed up the cell's chemical reactions by lowering the energy barriers (energy of activation).

Front 187

Distinguish between breathing and cellular respiration

Back 187

Breathing is taking air in (inspiration) and out of your lungs (expiration); can be consciously controlled ( i.e. a voluntary action)
Respiration is part of a metabolic process; it is a cellular activity where the end products are energy molecules (ATP), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) ; cannot be consciously controlled (or, is an involuntary action)

Front 188

Identify the kinds of molecules that can be used by the cell to supply energy.

Back 188

ATP and NADH.

Front 189

Describe the basic events of glycolysis.

Back 189

In glycolysis, glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate molecules. 2 ATP are used, 4 are made for a net of 2 ATP. Two NADH are also made, which are transported into the mitochondrion (using 2 ATP)

Front 190

Explain what happens in respiration reactions if no oxygen is present.

Back 190

This is when anaerobic respiration takes place. It is respiration without using oxygen. However, when anaerobic respiration takes place, lactic acid is produced and accumulates until the muscles cannot work any more. This is why anaerobic respiration can not happen for very long. After anaerobic respiration, the person usually has to breathe heavily in order to break down the lactic acid and to 'pay back the oxygen debt'.

Front 191

Explain the energy formation of the Krebs cycle

Back 191

he krebs cycle does not produce ATP directly, it produces high energy reduced compounds (FADH2 and NADH) which are then used to power the formation of ATP through the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. In total 38 ATP are yielded from cellular respiration, 36 of them from the oxidative phosphorylation powered by FAD2 and NADH and 2 from glycolysis.

Front 192

What is depth of field?

Back 192

Depth of field is the range of distance within the subject that is acceptably sharp.

Front 193

What is the field of view?

Back 193

field: the area that is visible (as through an optical instrument)

Front 194

What is the working distance?

Back 194

The distance from the objective to the specimen with the image in focus.