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214 Cards in this Set

  • Front
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What does ecology study?
The distribution and abundance of species; how different organisms interact in and with their environment.
What are the 6 levels of the ecological hierarchy from narrow to very broad?
1) Organismal Ecology
2) Population Ecology
3) Community Ecology
4) Ecosystem Ecology
5) Landscape Ecology
6) Global Ecology
Who coined the term "ecology" and defined it as "the relation of the animal to its organic and inorganic environment, particularly friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it comes in contact"?
Ernst Haeckel - German zoologist
What is the study of fresh-water lakes?
Limnology
What's the difference between ecology and environmentalism?
Ecology - experimental science
Environmentalism - taking an opinion on the enviornment
What are the four reasons a species may be absent from an area?
1. Limited dispersal (area inaccessible)
2. Behavior limits dispersal (habitat selection)
3. Biotic Factors limit dispersal (predation, parasitism, competition, disease)
4. Abiotic Factors limit dispersal (chem. and phys. factors)
What are the different kinds of abiotic factors? List examples.
Chemical Factors - water, oxygen, salinity, pH, soil
Biological Factors - temperature, light, soil, fire
What is the Energy Balance Equation?
What does it stand for?
Q + M = R + C + λE [ + G + stored heat]
Q = incoming heat by radiation
M = metabolism
R = lost heat by radiation
C = convection / wind
λE = evaporative cooling
G = conduction of heat
stored heat = fat
How much of the sun's energy actually makes it to Earth? Where does the rest go?
50% makes it to Earth
30% reflects off of atmosphere
8% absorbed by clouds
11% absorbed by dust
What is the average temperature of the Earth? What would it be if there was no atmosphere?
15 degrees C
- 17 degrees C
In a corn canopy, it is warmer at the tops of the stalks compared to near the ground. This is an example of what?
Microclimate
What is the Energy Balance Equation for a leaf?
Q = R + C + λE
Q = incoming heat by radiation
R = lost heat by radiation
C = convection / wind
λE = evaporative cooling
Would a leaf with more surface area be more likely to be a sun or a shade leaf?
Shade leaf because it needs more surface area to obtain enough radiation from the sun.
What is the most significant route to energy loss?
Radiation
What is the most significant route to energy loss?
Radiation
What are the two main factors contributing to climate? What are some other contributors?
Sun and Motion of the Earth (seasonality)
- oceans, topography, rain shadow, adiabatic lapse rate (air moves upward, pressure drops, temp drops), aspect (N. vs. S. facing slopes)
What are the two main factors contributing to climate? What are some other contributors?
Sun and Motion of the Earth (seasonality)
- oceans, topography, rain shadow, adiabatic lapse rate (air moves upward, pressure drops, temp drops), aspect (N. vs. S. facing slopes)
What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans?
91%
What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans?
91%
What are the two main components of climate? What are the lesser components?
Temperature and Precipitation
- light, wind
What are the two main components of climate? What are the lesser components?
Temperature and Precipitation
- light, wind
What percent of the Earth's water is found in the oceans? is fresh water? What percent of the fresh water is ground water?
97% (oceans)
3% (fresh water)
--> <25% ground/drinking water
--> (75% ice water)
What percent of the Earth's water is found in the oceans? is fresh water? What percent of the fresh water is ground water?
97% (oceans)
3% (fresh water)
--> <25% ground/drinking water
--> (75% ice water)
What is the top layer of bodies of water called? Why?
Photic Zone - where the sun hits
In the summer, bodies of water are warmer at the top, in the photic layer; what term does this describe?
Thermocline
What is the temperature of water at the bottom of a body of water; and during spring and autumn due to the water cycling?
4 degrees C
What is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area?
Population
What is the number of individuals per unit area or volume?
Density
What is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population? What three kinds are there?
Dispersion
1) Clumped
2) Random
3) Uniform
What are the three kinds of sampling methods?
1) Transect Sampling
2) Quadrat Sampling
3) Mark-Recapture Sampling
What is the kind of sampling where for a given area you sample the dispersion along a certain line?
Transect Sampling
What is the kind of sampling where you divide a given area into random squares or in a grid?
Quadrat Sampling (scale is important)
What is the mark-recapture method of sampling?
Capture a given number of individuals, tag them, release them, recapture individuals; using an equation determine the total number of individuals in the population.
(#marked / N) = (#recaptured / #sampled)
Which kind of distribution is the mean equal to the variance?
Random (2nd most common)
Which kind of distribution is the mean greater than the variance?
Regular / Uniform (most rare)
Which kind of distribution is the mean less than the variance?
Clumped (most common)
What is the most common pattern of dispersion? Least common?
Most = clumped
Middle = random
Least = uniform
Humans are which type for survivorship curves?
Type I
Describe the three types of survival for survivorship curves.
Type I - low death rate until reach max. lifespan
Type II - death rate is fairly constant across life
Type III - very high rate of death at beginning, but if indiv. survives can live a long time
What three factors influence strategies for survivorship?
1) Time to maturity (first reproduction)
2) Number of reproductive episodes
3) Number of offspring / reprod. episode
What is semelparity?
Produce lots of offspring one time.
What is iteroparity?
Multiple reproductive cycles, less offspring per cycle.
Which type of species is more likely to give parental care?
Iteroparous species
Which type of species is more likely to have many offspring at once due to a variable environment?
Semelparous species
What is it called when siblings stay home to take care of each other and sometimes delay reproducing on their own?
Kin Selection
What does Hamalton's Rule state?
Benefits must be greater than the costs (if closely related there must be a benefit to maintain genes in the gene pool)
What factors into the size of the population?
Births & Immigration
Deaths & Emigration
What are the equations for the Exponential Growth Model?
dN / dt = rN
N = No e^rt
What does the Exponential Growth Model assume?
Unlimited resources; change in population size is proportional to the current population ONLY.
What is the equation for the Logistic Model of Population Growth?
dN / dt = rN (K-N / K)
What does the Logistic Model of Pop. Growth take into consideration?
The change in population size is proportional to the current pop. size AND is limited by carrying capacity (K)
What does N(max) =?
K
What are the implicit assumptions of the Logistic Model of Population Growth?
- No immigration or emigration
- Environment is constant (no disasters...)
- Carrying capacity is constant
- Age is not a factor
- No spatial component (individuals will disperse as needed to meet requirements)
What does (K-N) / K represent?
The proportion of resources remaining in terms of the population before the population reaches carrying capacity.
What will the slope of the line be for the graph of birth/death rate vs. pop. density if the rate is density independent?
No slope; horizontal line; density has no impact on birth or death rate.
What will the slope of the line be for the graph of birth/death rate vs. pop. density if the rate is density dependent?
There will be a slope;
BR = negative slope (birth rate decreases as density increases)
DR = positive slope (death rate increases as density increases)
Which kind of selection, selects for life history traits that are sensitive to population density? AKA: density dependent selection.
K-Selection
Which kind of selection selects for life history traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments. AKA: density-independent selection.
R-Selection
What traits are "typical" of R-selected species?
- Rapid growth
- Semelparity
- Rapid maturity
- Less or no parental care
- Short life span
- High dispersal
- Small body size
Which traits are "typical" of K-selected species?
- Not rapid growth
- Iteroparity
- Slow maturity
- More parental care
- Long life span
- Low dispersal
- Large body size
- "Survivalists"
What is a metapopulation?
A group of spatially separated populations of one species that interact through immigration and emigration.
What is an important aspect of metapopulation success?
Many patches needed that are within dispersal distance.
How successful would a small, isolated population be?
Probably won't survive in the long-term.
What are the two kinds of patches in a metapopulation?
Source and Sink patches
Which kind of patch has a BR > DR, r>0 ?
Source patch.
Which kind of patch has a DR > BR, r<0 ?
Sink patch.
What ensures sink patches survival?
Emigration from source patches to sink patches.
Are source patches or sink patches more important? Why?
Source patches are more important to ensure survival because if sink patches are too abundant the population cannot exist.
What is it called when there is stability in the population size (BR = DR)?
Zero Population Growth (ZPG)
In the world, how many children does each female need to have on average? What is the actual average amount of kids / female?
2.1 kids = ZPG
2.7 kids = Actual
What are the four stages of Demographic Transition?
Stage 1 = high DR / high BR
Stage 2 = DR falls (transition)
Stage 3 = BR falls (transition)
Stage 4 = low DR / high BR
What is the estimated population of the world by 2050 (according to the UN)? What amount of those people will be from less developed countries? More developed countries?
9-10 billion people total
8 billion people (less developed)
1.2 billion people (more developed)
How dense are people in the USA? China? Japan? India? Bangladesh?
42 ppl / km^2 (USA)
148 ppl / km^2 (China)
269 ppl / km^2 (Japan)
491 ppl / km^2 (India)
1545 ppl / km^2 (Bangladesh)
If the USA was as crowded as Bangladesh, how many people would be in the USA?
15 million people
What is a parasitoid?
A bactera living in an insect which eventually eats its host.
What is the competitive exclusion principle?
When one species utilizes a resource better than another, they will win out.
What is the difference between a "Fundamental Niche" and a "Realized Niche"?
Fundamental - where it COULD inhabit
Realized - where it DOES inhabit
What is the different between "Allopatric" and "Sympatric"?
Allopatric - different isolated locations
Sympatric - different unisolated locations
When two species desire the same resource one must evolve to take a new resource. What is this called?
Character displacement
When differentiation of niches occurs, what is this called?
Resource partitioning
When two species want to occupy the same niche, what are the two options of adaptation?
Character displacement OR resource partitioning
What is this an example of: when a finch beak changes to fit the size of seed they are able to eat.
Character displacement
What is this an example of: two finch species both eat seeds, one will specifically eat the small seeds, the other will eat the larger seeds.
Resource partitioning
What kind of responses are their to predation?
- Weapons
- Herbivory - secondary metabolites
- Camouflage - cryptic coloration
- Hiding
- Deceptive coloration
- Aposematic coloration
- Batesian mimicry
- Müllerian mimicry
What are secondary metabolites?
Things plants produce that are not necessary for survival but often are helpful; used as defense mechanisms.
Ex: alkyloids, tannins, nicotine, caffeine
What is the moth with eyeball coloration on its wings an example of?
Deceptive coloration
When a frog broadcasts their poisonous characteristic with bright colors, what is that an example of?
Aposematic coloration
What is it called when a harmless species mimics a harmful one?
Batesian mimicry
What is it called when two unpalatable species mimic each other?
Müllerian mimicry
What are the three kinds of symbiosis?
- Mutualism (+/+)
- Parasitism (+/-)
- Commensalism (+/o)
Which is the most common kind of symbiosis?
Mutualism
What is it called when one species benefits, but the other is unaffected?
Commensalism
What is commonly discovered about commensalism?
Many turn out to have an affect on the neutral species, it just isn't always known right away.
What is species richness?
Number of species.
Is a community more or less diverse if the relative abundances of each species are similar?
More diverse
What is used to measure the amount of diversity?
Shannon Diversity Index (H)
How do you measure the Shannon Diversity Index? (H = ?, Pi = ?)
Pi = proportion of species i / total population of all species

H = - sum (Pi ln Pi)
What is the Relative Abundance Curve a graph of?
# of individuals / species (log scale)
VS. frequency
What is the diversity of a community related to?
Its stability
Are there more rare or common species?
Rare; usually not a lot of common species since they are dominant.
When you miss certain rare species that you don't even sample them, where are they "located" on the graph?
In the veil (less than 1 individual / species) --> to the left of the y-axis.
What does a food web show that a food chain fails to show?
Links between producers and all of the consumers.
Why is it rare to have more than 5 trophic levels in a food chain?
Loss of calories / energy as you go up the levels; size limitations (must be capable of hunting the level below you; would be hard to hunt a whale for instance)
What is the average efficiency of passed on energy?
10% efficiency (90% loss)
As productivity decreases (less energy passed on to the successive level), the number of tropic levels _____?
Declines
What is a species that preys on dominant species and is important for regulation?
Keystone species.
A keystone species is what?
A species that is not necessarily abundant in a community, yet exerts strong control on community structure by the nature of its ecological role or niche.
What is a foundation species?
A species that impacts species richness by changing environment.
What is it called when the species at the top trophic levels influence the species richness?
Trophic Cascade = Top-Down Regulation
What is it called when the nutrients that primary producers utilize are manipulated?
Bottom-Up Regulation
When top-down regulation is implemented by ecologists this is called?
Biomanipulation
Who consumes dead, organic matter (decomposer)? What kind of regulation is this?
Detritovore
Bottom-Up Regulation
What is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis?
At intermediate levels of intensity, the maximum number of species exist.
After a disturbance there are two kinds of succession. What are they? How do they differ?
Secondary Succession = soil is left intact after a disturbance
Primary Succession = have to start from scratch after a disturbance
What are the four stages in primary succession following a disturbance (at Glacier Bay, Alaska after a glacier)?
1) Pioneer stage
2) Dryas stage
3) Alder stage
4) Spruce stage
What is evapotranspiration?
Combination of the two factors that are important for climate:
- evaporation of water from soil
- transpiration of water from plants
As evapotranspiration increases how is species richness affected?
Species richness increases.
The equilibrium number of species is a balance between what two factors?
Immigration Rate and Extinction Rate
A larger island has what affect on immigration and extinction rates?
Immigration Rate increases to larger islands.
Extinction Rate decreases for larger islands.
A closer island has what affect on immigration and extinction rates?
Immigration Rate increases to closer islands.
Extinction Rate decreases for closer islands.
What is a "zoonose"?
A pathogen transmitted from one animal to another, directly or through a vector.
Ex: avian flu
What is the sum of all the organisms living within its boundaries and all the abiotic factors with which they interact?
Ecosystem
What is a microcosm?
A small ecosystem, such as under a fallen log or a small pool
What are two factors that are a part of ecosystems that aren't encompassed by populations or communities?
Energy flow and nutrient/chemical cycling.
What is the ultimate source of energy?
Sun
How many Joules of energy hit the Earth from the sun each day? If all of that energy could be harnessed, how long would it meet humans needs? How much is currently being used?
10^22 J / day
25 years
1/10,000
Who is solely responsible for capturing the energy from the sun?
Primary producers: Autotrophs
How much energy do the primary producers capture from the sun in a year?
150 x 10^12 kg organic matter / year
Who eats the autotrophs / primary producers?
Heterotrophs: herbivores (primary consumers)
Who eats the primary consumers?
Heterotrophs: carnivores (secondary consumers)
Who eats secondary consumers?
Heterotrophs: carnivores who eat carnivores (tertiary or higher consumers)
How do chemicals and energy return to the primary producers?
Detritovores - decompose dead matter
Who are detritovores?
Mainly microorganisms like prokaryotes and fungi.
What is the term for the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs called? What is the distinction between GPP and NPP?
Primary Production
Gross Primary Production = Net Primary Production - Respiration
GPP = NPP - R
Why is only about 1% of the sun's light harnessed by photosynthesis?
A lot of light is reflected or scattered; most of the sunlight does not hit photosynthetic materials; of the radiation that does make it, only certain wavelengths are absorbed.
What is the GPP?
Gross Primary Production: amount of energy (light) that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis in a given amount of time.
What is the NPP?
Net Primary Production: equal the GPP minus the energy used by the primary producers for respiration (R)
In most ecological communities, the NPP = ?
1/2 GPP
How is the NPP measured?
Amount of additional biomass (mass of vegetation) added to the ecosystem per unit area per unit time.
Where in the world is the NPP highest? How much of the Earth is devoted to this type of landscape? How much does it contribute to the NPP?
Rainforests = 3.3% of Earth's surface area; 22% of NPP
Besides rainforests, what is the other big contributor to NPP?
Oceans (65% SA and 24% NPP)
What factors limit NPP in aquatic systems if they are not available?
Light
Nutrients
What factors limit NPP in terrestrial ecosystems if they are not available?
Temperature and Moisture (evapotranspiration)
Nutrients
How is NPP related to evapotranspiration?
Positive relationships
What is the amount of chemical energy that is converted to new biomass for a given time period in consumers?
Secondary Production
Certain ______ ecosystems have inverted biomass periods. Why?
Aquatic; more biomass in primary consumers than in primary producers due to the short turnover time of the producers (grow, reproduce, and consumed so quickly they can develop a large pop. size)
What does a short turnover time mean?
Small standing crop compared to the production.
Which factors make up the Green World Hypothesis which posits that certain factors keep herbivores in check (consume only 1/6 of NPP of plants)?
- Plant defenses
- Limited availability of essential nutrients
- Abiotic factors
- Intraspecific competition (territorial behavior...)
- Interspecific competition (predators, parasites, pathogens)
Nutrient cycles involve both biotic and abiotic components: they are called? Two levels? Kinds?
Biogeochemical Cycles
Global and Local
Gaseous: carbon, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen
Non-gaseous: phosphorus, potassium, calcium
The four reservoirs for elements can be broken down by two classifications, which are?
Organic or Inorganic
Available or Unavailable
What are examples of the four kinds of reservoirs for elements (in cycling)?
1) Organic / Available: living organisms, detritus
2) Organic / Unavailable: coal, oil, peat
3) Inorganic / Available: atmosphere, soil, water
4) Inorganic / Unavailable: minerals in rocks
How do organic minerals go from available to unavailable?
Fossilization
How do unavailable, organic minerals become available, inorganic minerals?
Burning of fossil fuels.
How do available, inorganic materials become unavailable? Reverse?
Formation of sedimentary rock (minerals in rocks).
Weathering, erosion.
How do available, organic minerals become available, inorganic minerals? Reverse?
Respiration, decomposition, excretion.
Assimilation, photosynthesis.
Decomposition is faster in which kind of environments?
Warm with higher levels of precipitation (i.e. tropical rainforests)
What percent of nutrients in a rainforest are found in the trees? Soil? What does this show?
75% in trees
10% in soil
Fast decomposition time; doesn't stay in ground long; taken back up quickly.
What percent of nutrients in a temperate region are found in the soil? Why less than rainforests?
50% (not as high because slower decomposition time)
The amount of nutrients leaving an intact forest ecosystem (as measured in water) is controlled mainly by?
Plants (important consideration with deforestation... could lead to unsafe levels of nutrients in drinking water)
What percentage of the atmosphere is nitrogen?
72% (N2, NΞN)
How does nitrogen gas, N2, become biologically active?
Nitrogen fixation (N2 --> NH4+)
Who performs nitrogen fixation?
Prokaryotes:
- rhizobia in legumes
- cyanobacteria
What is the change of NH4+ (from nitrogen fixation) to NO2 and NO3 called; it is performed by some bacteria...
Nitrification
When NO2 and NO3 are changed into nitrogen gas (N2) to put nitrogen back into the atmosphere and complete the cycle what is it called? Who performs this?
Denitrification - not desired because it makes nitrogen unusable
Prokaryotes
What is the process of the nitrogen cycle?
N2 in atmosphere --> Nitrogen Fixation (NH4+) --> Nitrification (NO2 and NO3) --> Denitrification (N2)
What is the Haber-Bosch Reaction and why is it significant?
Breaks the NΞN bond; used in fertilizer to increase yield of crops
What percentage of Nitrogen in crops is from the Haber-Bosch Reaction? What percentage of N we consume is from H-B?
40% (in crops)
~30% we consume
What is Hypoxia? Why does it occur?
Not enough oxygen available; nitrogen run-off into water sources increases phytoplankton, leads to a "dead zone" when they die and decompose.
What is "eutrophication"?
A high concentration of run-off of certain nutrients (i.e. nitrogen) which causes plant life to increase, leading to hypoxia (low O2 levels); occur where rivers run off, like Mississippi R. basin.
During decomposition, ______ use up ______.
Bacteria, O2
What is smog made of?
PAN = peroxyacylnitrates
Why is the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere a jagged line over time?
Different seasons decrease CO2 levels more than others (summer vs. winter)
What are the two main causes of the influx of CO2 in the atmosphere?
Fossil fuel burning
Conversion of forest to agriculture
What kind of wavelengths are emitted from the sun?
Short wave radiation = high energy
What kind of wavelengths are emitted from the Earth?
Long wave radiation = low energy
What do greenhouse gases do to warm up the Earth?
Absorbs long wave radiation from Earth and emits the energy back to Earth's surface.
What is the most important Greenhouse Gas? What are some of the other ones?
CO2 = most important
(methane, nitric oxides...)
What is the evidence behind global warming?
- Glaciers retreating
- Polar ice melting
- Sea level is rising
- Lakes freeze later, melt sooner
- Earlier arrival of spring in WI (birds migrate back sooner; vegetation blooming earlier)
- Later arrival of fall
Even though the added CO2 in the atmosphere increases the production of plants, why can it not make up for all of the extra CO2 in the atmosphere?
Do not grow enough to eliminate the extra CO2; not enough of other nutrients to continue photosynthesis (can add fertilizer to push photosynthesis)
In what ways are humans changing the environment?
- Climate change
- Pollution
- Acid rain
- Ozone depletion
- Reduced biodiversity
What is the original pH of rain? What is acid rain's pH?
What was the lowest ever pH?
5.6 (fairly acidic as is)
4.5-5.0
1.5 in W. Virginia
What is the most important factor towards the declining Ozone?
Chlorine (chlorofluorocarbons = CFC's)
What are some of the toxins in the environment?
DDT, PCBs, Hg
Why are toxins in the environment so dangerous?
Pollutants are biomagnified in the food chain (become more and more concentrated as trophic level increases)
Why is DDT so dangerous to birds?
They are high up in the food chain and the DDT builds up and softens their egg shells, preventing reproduction.
What amount of species are estimated to have been lost in the last century?
30 species
How many of the 5500 mammal species are endangered?
1400 species
What services do ecosystems provide?
- Clean water
- Oxygen / biogeochemical cycles
- Climate regulation
- Pollination
- Food production
- Raw materials
- Genetic materials / genes
- Recreation
- Disturbance regulation
- Waste treatment
What is the value of ecosystems (their services)?
$33 trillion / year (compared to $19 trillion of the global economy)
Was the number of species increases, how is biomass impacted?
Increases
As the number of species increases, how is the time to recover from a disturbance impacted?
Decreases
Why is maintaining a high level of species richness important?
Biomass increases
Recovery time from disturbances decreases
What top factors contribute to reduced biodiversity / stability?
- Habitat loss
- Introduced species
- Overexploitation
How does a small population lead to a smaller population?
Small pop.
--> Inbreeding & Genetic Drift
--> Loss of genetic variability
--> Reduces fitness and pop adaptability
--> Lower reproduction & Higher mortality
--> Smaller population
What is the minimum viable population (MVP)?
The minimal population size at which a species is able to sustain its numbers and survive.
What is the effective population size (Ne)?
An estimate of the size of a population based on the number of females and males that successfully breed; generally smaller than the total population.
What is the equation for the effective population size (Ne)
Ne = (4 Nf Nm) / (Nf + Nm)
Nf = # of females
Nm = # of males
(that breed successfully)
What are the two kinds of edges?
Naturally made
Human activity made
How do edges affect the species richness?
Can't support as many species when there are landscapes dominated by edges.
What are three ways to combat the detrimental effects of edges?
- Corridors
- Reserves - large land plots (better than many small plots)
- Relocation of species (increase genetic diversity)
What was the original study in early ecology? By whom?
Henry Cowles studied sand dunes of Lake Michigan; he came up with the idea of succession of plants in certain environments (he was also the first pres. of Ecology Society of America).
When did the science of ecology originate?
1866
What tilt is the Earth positioned at?
23 degrees
What is the adiabatic lapse rate?
Change in temperature with altitude.
Why do some biomes overlap in the annual precipitation / temperature graph?
Averages are not necessarily indicative of biome. Also, seasonality, side of mountain, topography, soil types all influence biomes.
What is the zone underwater that receives no light?
Benthic zone
For the Logistic Model of Pop. Growth, what does 1/2 K equal?
Optimum population size
What is the equation for calculating the doubling time of a population?
t(double) = ln2 / r
What can limit productivity in oceans?
Iron
What is the average NPP of primary producers?
1%
Which is bigger MVP or Ne?
Minimum Viable Population (MVP) > Effective Population Size (Ne)
What accounts for the north to south flow of winds?
Heat is delivered more at the equator than near the poles.
What accounts for the westward and eastward flow of wind?
Land near the equator is moving faster than the land near the poles; therefore the speed redirects the vertical n and s winds to a more horizontal flow.
How is the Shannon Diversity Index (H) related to species richness?
The higher the species richness, the greater H will be because there is a greater variety of species.