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176 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What elements make up 96% of all living matter?
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Carbon
oxygen hydrogen nitrogen |
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How many of the 92 elements can't we live without?
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25 of the elements we can't live without
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What's a Dalton?
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amu, 1 proton or neutron = 1 dalton
(Neutrons & protons identical mass essentially of 1.7 x 10 -24g |
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molecule
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2 or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
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compound
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consists of 2 or more different atoms
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Can you have a compound without a covalent bond?
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Yes
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single covalent bond
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sharing 1 electron
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double covalent bond
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sharing 2 electrons
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What does pH measure?
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pH measures the concentration of hydrogen ions
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Is acid a recipient or an H+ donor?
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An acid is a solute that donates H+
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Is base a recipient or an H+ donor?
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A base is a solute that accepts an H+
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pH Scale: in any aqueous solution 25 C, the product of [H+] & [OH-] is constant at what?
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constant at 10 -14
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Why do we use logarithmic scale?
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Because the concentration of [H+] & [OH-} can vary by such huge quantities
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pH Scale
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pH = -log [H+]
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if [H+] = 10 -7, what is its pH?
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pH = -log 10 -7 = -(-7) = 7
so pH = 7 |
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Does low pH = higher or lower [H+]?
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Low pH = higher [H+]
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is low pH acidic or basic?
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low pH = acidic solution
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is high pH acidic or basic?
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high pH = basic solution?
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buffers
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internal pH around 7
slight change in pH harmful b/c chem processes of the cell are very sensitive to concentrations of H+ and OH- |
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What is the pH of blood?
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7.4
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if blood drops to a pH of ____ or goes above a pH of ____, you'll only last a few minutes.
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7 or 7.8
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blood uses what to buffer?
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H2CO3 carbonic acid - blood buffer... goes between (acid) H2CO3 <-> (base) HCO3- + H+
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cells include how much water?
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70-95%
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what percentage of compounds in our body are carbon?
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5-30%
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carbon cycle is what?
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Plants us CO2 + sun = starches/sugars + energy & O2
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Carbon bonds
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4 valence electrons
forms 4 covalent bonds - tetravalence large, complex molecules possible |
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tetrahedral shape creates angles of what angle?
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109.5 degrees
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what are the most frequent partners of carbon?
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nitrogen
hydrogen oxygen (also other carbon) |
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hydrocarbons
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organic molecules that consist of only carbon hydrogen
lipids or fats hydrophobic (do they cross cell membranes?) |
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isomers
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compounds with teh same molecular formula but different structures and properties
1. structural 2. geometric 3. Enantiomers |
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structural isomers
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have different covalent arrangements of their atoms or location of double bond
ex: C8H8 18 possible struct's ex C20H43 tons more struct's |
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geometric isomers
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have the same covalent arrangements, but differ in spatial arrangements
inflexibility of double bonds |
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cis isomer
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two xs are on the same side
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trans isomer:
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two two Xs are on opposite sides
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enantiomers
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isomers that are mirror images of each other
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Asymmetric carbon
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attached to 4 different atoms (or groups of atoms)
can be arranged in 2 different ways one biologically active, otaher inactive |
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horrible example of enantiomer?
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Thalidomide 50-60's
mixture of enantiomers - pregnant women reduced morning sickness severe birth defects |
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hydroxyl group is what?
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has -OH on the end of it
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functional properties of hydroxyl groups
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polar- result of the electronegative oxygen atom drawing electrons toward itself
Attracts water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds |
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names of hydroxyl groups?
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-ol (ex. alcohol)
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Carbonyl group is what?
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carbon double bonded to an oxygen
C=O |
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functional properties of carbonyl groups?
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found in sugars
cleaners |
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Carboxyl group
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-COOH
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name of carboxyl groups
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carboxylic acids
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functional properties of carboxyl groups
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acidic properties - source of H+
acetic acid acetate ion |
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Phosphate group
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-OPO3 2-
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name of phosphate groups
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organic phosphates
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functional properties of phosphate
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makes an anion
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adenosine triphosphate
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(ATP) organic phosphate molecule - energy source
adenosine attached to 3 phosphate groups |
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methyl group
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Didn't catch it, so I'll have to google this
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functional groups information needed for test.
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be able to identify them
know their functions, characteristics what groups are soluble in water? what groups are reactive |
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which of the functional groups are soluble in water?
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all of them but methyl
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How are macromolecules bonded together?
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large molecules composed of 1000's of COVALENTLY connected atoms
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build polymer
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dehydration rxn (condensation
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what is a dehydration rxn facilitated by?
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enzymes
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hydrolysis
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breakdown of a polymer; digestion system would breakdown food, chops it up, releases energy and adds and H- tail and an OH tail on 2 ends
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diversity of polymers
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each cell has 1000's of different macromolecules; an immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers
20 amino acids - thousands of proteins |
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where are monosaccharides classified?
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1. By location of the carbonyl group
2. number of carbons in the skeleton |
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what kind of monosacharide has the C=O bond in the middle?
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Ketose
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what kind of monosacharide has the C=O bond on the end?
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Aldose
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Which of the 2 are used to classify a carbohydrate as a monosaccharide?
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location of CARBONYL group
Number of carbons in carbon skeleton |
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what is glucose in the economy of the body?
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glucose is the currency of cells
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Disaccarides are what?
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2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkages
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what is a 1-4 glycosidic linkage?
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an example would be 2 hexagon shaped glucose molecules connected via an 2 H's on the glucose molecules and an O in the middle forming an "H2O" between the 2.
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is fructose a pentagon or a hexagon?
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it's a pentagon
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is glucose a pentagon or a hexagon
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hexagon
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polysaccharides
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macromolecules; polymers of monosaccharides (monomers)
often called complex carbohydrates |
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structure and function of a polysaccharide is determined by what?
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sugar monomers
positions of glycosidic linkages |
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storage polysaccharides
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starch; storage of polysaccharide of plants
consists entirely of glucose monomers granules within chloroplasts and other plastics |
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what shape does the 1-4 linkage give the starch molecule?
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helical shape
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structural polysaccharides
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cellulose - major structural component of plant cell walls
abundant organic comound on earth polymer of glucose, different glycosidic linkages |
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in starch are the structural groups straight or twisted?
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twisted
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is cellulose hard or easy to break apart?
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really freakin hard
because of that, it doesn't digest |
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what is fiber?
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cellulose
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what does fiber do?
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abrades the wall, stimulates mucus secretion, aids in smooth passage of waste
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which of the molecules that we discussed do not form polymers
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lipids
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lipids are...
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hydrophobic
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chitins?
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exoskeletons of arthropods etc
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what is a saturated fatty acid?
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max num of hydrogen atoms possible & NO DOUBLE BONDS
because of the no double bonds, they are packed tightly and cause heart disease |
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unsaturated fatty acids?
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1 or more double bonds.
because of this, the double bond causes a kink and makes them not sit as tightly and are "healthy fats" |
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phospholipids
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2 fatty acids & phosphate group attached to glycerol
-Fatty acid tails - hydrophobic -phosphate group & attachments form a hydrophilic head (polar) |
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throw a bunch of phospholipids together in water and what?
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a phospholipid bilayer
-hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior polar heads facing exterior |
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steroids
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carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
-vary in their functional groups -cholesterol, important steroid -precursor to hormones like testosterone, estrogen |
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proteins
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-monomers are amino acids
-polymers polypeptides...linked by peptide bonds |
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what is the monomer of a protein?
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amino acid
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enzymes?
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protein catalyst- speed up chem rxns
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how many amino acids?
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20
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what are amino acids?
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Organic molecule with:
-carboxyl group -amino groups |
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how are amino acid groups classified?
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BY THEIR SIDE GROUPS ONLY
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what are polypeptides the building blocks of?
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proteins
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how many levels of protein structure are there?
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4:
primary secondary tertiary quaternary |
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what is the primary structure of protein?
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just a basic sequence...simple
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what is secondary structure of protein?
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first level of org where you start to see shape...coils & folds in the polypeptide chains due to H-bonds in backbone
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tertiary structure of protein?
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interactions among various side chains (R groups)
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Quaternary structure of protein?
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multiple polypeptide chains
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know what a β pleated sheet looks like
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memorize picture
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know what an alpha helix looks like
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memorize it
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protein conformation
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-primary structure, physical & chem condition
-alterations in pH, salt conc, temp, can cause prtein to unfold -denaturation is the loss of its native conformation you can't "uncook" a protein |
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polymer
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a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds, much as a train consists of a chain of cars
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monomers
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The repeating unites that serve as the building blocks of a polymer...smaller molecules
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macromolecules
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members of the three classes, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
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enzymes
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specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reaction in cells
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hydrolosis
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a process that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction. Hydroloysis means to break using water
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what process adds a water and thus breaks apart a bond in a molecule of polymer?
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hydrolosis
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what are the four main classes of large biological molecules?
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lipids
carbs proteins nucleic acids |
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how many H2) molec's are needed to completely hydrolyze a polymer that is 10 monomers long?
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9, one for each of the bonds between monomers
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carbs
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sugars and polymers of sugars
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what are the simplest carbohydrates?
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monosaccharides, also known as simple sugars
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What are disaccharides?
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double sugars consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
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What are the single sugars that usually have some multiple of the unit CH2O?
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monosaccharides
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what does a disaccharide consist of?
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two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
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where do glycosidic linkages come into play?
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linking 2 monosaccharides together
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what is a polysaccharides?
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macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
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is the C=O inside or outside of Ketoses?
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inside
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C=O bonds are present more centrally in which subset of the carbonyl group?
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ketose
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Is Glyceraldehyde an aldose or a ketose?
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aldose
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Is Fructose an aldose or a ketose?
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ketose
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Is Ribose an aldose or a ketose?
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aldose
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Is Ribulous an aldose or a ketose?
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ketose
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Is Dihydroxyacetone an aldose or a ketose?
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ketose
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Is Glucose an aldose or a ketose?
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aldose
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Is Galactose an aldose or a ketose?
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aldose
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how do animals store polysaccharides?
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glycogen
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what is glycogen
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an animal polysaccharide...it's a polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched
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what is starch?
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a plant polysaccharide
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what is cellulose
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a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells
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what is fiber?
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cellulose
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what's the difference between an α Glucose and a β Glucose?
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the β Glucose ring has the OH situated toward the top of the molecule closer to CH2OH
The β Glucose has the hydroxyl group down lower on the molecule by the other OH group instead of at the top by the CH2OH |
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Write the formula of a monomer that has 3 Carbons
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C3H6O3
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Write the formula for a monomer that has 7 Carbons
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C7H14O7
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A dehydration reaction joins two glucose's molecules to form maltose. the formula for glucose is C6H12O6, what is the formula for maltose
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C12H22O11
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lipids
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they mix poorly, if at all, with water; their hydrophobic behavior is based on their molecular structure
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fat
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constructed from two kinds of smaller molec's: glycerol and fatty acids
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what do glycerol and fatty acids form when put together?
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a fat
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where is an ester linkage?
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In making a fat, three fatty acid molecules each join to glycerol by an ester linkage, a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group
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ester linkage
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a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group in a fatty acid
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triacylglycerol
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a fat consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
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triglyceride
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another word for a fat
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why are saturated fats called that?
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because they pack closely together in an organized form and hence are more pernicious in being removed from arteries etc
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why cannot unsaturated fats sit closely together?
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because of kinks in their structure
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what is it called "saturated" fatty acid
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saturated with hydrogen, with as many carbon hydrogen atoms as possible bonded to the carbon skeleton
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steroids
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hormones which are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
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cholesterol
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a common component of animal cell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized
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what's the difference between a fat and a phospholipid?
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Same: both have a glycerol attached to fatty acids
Different: -fat has 3 fatty acids attached to the glycerol -the phospholipid's glycerol is attached to 2 fatty acids and one phosphate group |
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pyrimidine
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six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms; the nitrogen atoms tend to take up H+ from solution which explains why it's called a nitrogenous base
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purines include which
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adenine
guanine |
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pyrimidines include which
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cytosine
thymine uracil |
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sugar connected to the nitrogenous base is what?
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ribose
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diff in structure of pyrimidines vs purines
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pyrimidines: single ring
purines: double ring (2nd ring is |
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what parts of a polypeptide chain participate in the bonds that hold together a secondary structure?
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hydrogen bonds between the atoms of the polypeptide backbone
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what parts of a polypeptide chain participate in the bonds that hold together a tertiary structure?
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between amino acids of the R groups and amino acid sub units
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why does a denatured protein no longer function normally?
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because the shape has been changed which is what determines the function of a protein
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what method is used to determine the 3-D structures of many proteins?
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X-Ray crystallography
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what are chaperonins also called
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also called chaperone proteins
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chaperonins do what
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protein molec's that assist in the proper folding of other proteins, imagine a polypeptide chain going into a cylinder, cap/lid attaches, causing the cylinder to change shape in such a way that it creates a hydrophilic environment for the folding of the polypeptide, then the cap comes off and the properly folded protein is released
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denaturation
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when pH, salt concentration, temp, or other are altered, the protein may unravel and lose its native shape
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what are the polymers constructed from the same 20 amino acids that proteins consist of?
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polypeptides
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function of enzymatic proteins
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selective acceleration of chemical reactions
ex: digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of the polymers in food |
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function of structural proteins
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support
ex: insects and spiders use silk fibers to make their cocoons collagen and elastin provide fibrous framework in animal connective tissues |
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function of storage proteins
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storage of amino acids
ovalbumin is the protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source for the developing embryo |
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function of transport proteins
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transport of other substances
ex: hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood, transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body |
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function of hormonal proteins
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coordination of an organism's activities
ex: insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, helps regulate the concentration of sugar in the blood of vertebrates |
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function of receptor proteins
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response of cell to chemical stimuli
ex: receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell detect chemical signals released by other nerve cells |
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function of contractile and motor proteins
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movement; actin and mysin are responsible for the contraction of muscles; other proteins are responsible for the undulations of the organelles called cilia and flagella
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function of defensive proteins
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protection against disease
ex: antibodies combat bacteria and viruses |
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what's the spermy looking thing with the hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails?
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phospholipid
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what is the significance of the shape of a phospholipid?
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they're essential for cells because they make up cell membranes; they assemble in a bi-layer with the tails facing in from the 2 sides and the hydrophilic heads all facing the water on both sides
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whats a tertiary structure
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tertiary structure is the overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (R groups) of the various amino acids;
Where secondary structure involves interactions between backbone constituents, tertiary is the next level |
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what's secondary structure;
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coils and folds, collectively referred to as secondary structure, are the result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone (NOT THE AMINO SIDE CHAINS)
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primary structure
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unique sequence of amino acids
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what covalent bonds may the shape of a protein be reinforced further by?
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disulfide bridges
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what's quaternary structure
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the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits (primary, secondary and tertiary)
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what are the components and example/functions of: carbohydrates
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Component: monosaccharide monomer
Ex's: mono, di-, and polysaccharides with mono being gluc/fructose and disaccharides being lactose and sucrose; and poly being cellulose, starch glycogen and chitin Functions: mono/di: fuel; poly: strengthens plant cell walls, stores glucose for energy, strengthens exoskeletons |
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what are the components and example/functions of: lipids
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Components:
-glycerol -3 fatty acids (phospholipid looks like the spermy head with P joined by the glycerol to the 2 fatty acid tails Also steroid backbone is a component Ex's: triclglycerols (fats or oils) -phospholipids steroids: four fused rings with attached chem groups Functions: energy source is fat, lipid bilayers are lips, steroids are used for signaling |
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what are the components and example/functions of: proteins
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Component: amino acid monomer (remember it's got the amino group connected to the Carboxyl by an alpha carbon)
Ex's: enzymes, structural, storage, traphort proteins, hormones, receptor, motor, and defensive proteins Functions: catalyze, provide structural support, store amino acids, etc |
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what are the components and example/functions of: nucleic acids
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Component: nucleotide monomer (think nitrogenous base attached to sugar with phosphate group attached on other arm
Ex's: DNA/RNA (difference is that the sugar in DNA is deoxyribose instead of ribose Functions: stores all hereditary info in DNA, RNA carries protein-coding instructions from DNA to protein synthesizing machinery |
