Biology 1110 Week 2

Front 1

Prokaryotic Cells

Back 1

- no membrane bound oragnelles
- a lot smaller compared to eukaryotes

Front 2

Bacteria

Back 2

- prokaryote
- constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms
- contains peptidoglycan in cell wall

Front 3

Archaea

Back 3

- prokaryote
- single celled microorganism
- does not have a usual cell wall
- does not contain peptidoglycan in cell wall
- some species can live in extreme environments

Front 4

Prokaryote that inhabits (lives) in the Great Salt Lake in Utah.

Back 4

Halobacterium (genus)

Front 5

The most common shapes or prokaryotes

Back 5

- Spherical (cocci)
- Rod-shaped ( Bacilli)
- spiral ( spirilla)

Front 6

cell surface structures

Back 6

- cell wall of prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in terms of structure

Front 7

Eukaryote Cell wall structure (plants and fungi)

Back 7

- made from cellulose or CHITIN

Front 8

Most Bacterial cell walls contain

Back 8

- Peptidoglycan

Front 9

Peptidoglycan

Back 9

- polymer composed of modified sugar crossed-linked by short polypeptides
- encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface

Front 10

Archaeal cell wall

Back 10

- does not have peptidoglycan
- contains a variety of polysacchrides and proteins

Front 11

Gram staining

Back 11

- quickly determining if cell is gram negative or positive
- developed by a Danish physician Hans Christian Gram
- If stain stays, bacteria is Gram positive. If the stain doesn't stay, it is gram negative.

Front 12

Gram positive

Back 12

- the stain stays
- have simpler cell walls
- contain a large amount of peptidoglycan

Front 13

Gram negative

Back 13

- has less peptidoglycan
- structurally more complex
- outer layer contains lipopolysacchrides
- lipid portion of lipopolysacchride are toxic, causing fever or shock
-impedes entry of drugs due to the outer due to the outer membrane (more resistant to drugs

Front 14

lipopolusacchrides

Back 14

carbohydrates bonded to lipids

Front 15

penicillin

Back 15

- attacks cell wall of bacteria
- inhibits peptidoglycan cross linking
- resulting cell wall may not be functional specially in gram positive bacterias

Front 16

Gram positive and negative (picture)

Back 16

Front 17

cell wall of prokaryotes

Back 17

- many are surrounded by a layer of polysacchrides or protien
- capsule
- slime layer

Front 18

capsule

Back 18

- dense, well defined layer of polysacchride or protien layer present in most prokaryotes

Front 19

slime layer

Back 19

- less well organized version of the capsule

Front 20

Both capsule and slime layer

Back 20

- enables prokaryotes to adhere to their substrate or to other individuals in a colony
- some protect against dehydration
- some shield pathogenic prokaryotes from attacks by their host's immune system

Front 21

pili (sex pili)

Back 21

- longer than fimbriae
- allow prokaryote to exchange DNA

Front 22

Fimbriae (attachment pili)

Back 22

- hairlike appendages used by some prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or to one another
- shorter than pili

Front 23

taxis

Back 23

- almost half of all prokaryotes are capable off
- a directed movement toward or away from a stimulus
- cells may use flagella as a motility structure

Front 24

prokaryotes

Back 24

- DNA is circular
- no membrane bound oraganelle
- much smaller compared to eukaryotes
- evolve/ reproduce quickly (short generation time) by binary fission (1-3 hours)
- asexual
- chormosome is located in the nucleoid

Front 25

eukaryotic cell

Back 25

- have memrbrane bound organelles
- linear DNA

Front 26

plasmids

Back 26

- much smaller rings of independently replicating DNA molecules, carrying only a few genes

Front 27

binary fission

Back 27

- a single cell divides into 2
- exponential
- prokaryotes can divide within 1-3 hours
- some can produce a new generation within 20 minutes

Front 28

endospore

Back 28

- is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by certain bacteria
- triggered by a lack of nutrients, and usually occurs in Gram-positive bacteria
- Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods, even centuries

Front 29

Obligate Aerobe

Back 29

- cannot live withour oxygen
- require oxygen for cellular respiration

Front 30

Obligate anaerobe

Back 30

- poisoned by oxygen
- use fermintation or anaerobic respiration

Front 31

Facultive anaerobes

Back 31

- can survive with or without oxygen
- grows better with oxygen

Front 32

Nitrogen

Back 32

- essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms

Front 33

Nitrogen Fixation

Back 33

- conversion of nitrogen to ammonia

Front 34

Nitrogen fixation

Back 34

- prokaryotes can metabolize Nitrogen in a wide variety of forms
- some archaea (cyanobacteria/ methanogens), convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia

Front 35

nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes

Back 35

- can increase the nitrogen available for plants which cannot use atmospheric nitrogen but can use the nitrogen compounds from ammonia

Front 36

Metabolic Cooperation

Back 36

cooperation between prokaryotic cells that allow them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells.

Front 37

heterocysts

Back 37

- specialized cells that carry out only nitrogen fixation

Front 38

Biofilms

Back 38

- surface coating colonies where metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species occur.
- cells in a biofilm secrete signaling molecules that recriut nearby cells, causing the colonies to grow

Front 39

Archaea

Back 39

share certain traits with bacteria and other traits with eukaryotes

Front 40

extemophiles

Back 40

- live in extreme environments
- "lovers" of extreme conditions
- extreme halophiles
- extreme thermophiles

Front 41

extreme halophiles

Back 41

- live in highly saline environments (salty) (Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea)
- ex. is a Halobacterium

Front 42

extreme thermophiles

Back 42

- Thrive in very hot environments
- ex. is Sulfolobus, lives in sulfur rich volcanic springs as hot as 90C. temperatures this high prevents the DNA of most organism from being a double helix.

Front 43

methanogens

Back 43

- produce methane
- anaerobes
- arhaea that live in moderate environments

Front 44

chemical reycling

Back 44

.

Front 45

decomposers

Back 45

- chemoheterotrophic prokaryote function as a decomposer
- breaking down of dead organisms as well as waste products and thereby unlocking supplies of carbon, nitrogen, and other elements.

Front 46

Ecological Interactions

Back 46

-prokaryotes play a central role in many ecological interactions

Front 47

Symbiosis

Back 47

an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact with each other

Front 48

host

Back 48

larger organism in a symbiotic relationship

Front 49

symbiont

Back 49

smaller organism in a symbiotic relationship

Front 50

mutualism

Back 50

An ecological interaction between two species in which both benefit

Front 51

commensalism

Back 51

an ecological relationship in which one species benefits while the other is not harmed or helped in any significant way

Front 52

parasitism

Back 52

- an ecological relationship in which a parasite eats the cell contents, tissues, or body fluids of its host.
- as a group, parasites harm but does not usually kill their host

Front 53

pathogens

Back 53

parasites that cause disease, many of which are prokaryotes

Front 54

Exotoxins

Back 54

- proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms

Front 55

Endotoxins

Back 55

- lypopolusacchride components of the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria.
- endotoxins are only released when the bacteria die and their cell walls breakdown.

Front 56

metabollic diversity of prokartyoes

Back 56

-Autotroph ( photoautotroph and chemoautotroph)
- Heterotroph (photoheterotroph and chemoheterotroph )

Front 57

autotroph

Back 57

- Photoautotroph
- Chemoautotroph

Front 58

Photoautotroph

Back 58

- Energy source is Light\
- Carbon source is Carbon Dioxide\
- Photosynthetic prokaryote (cyanobacteria)( eg. protist (algae))

Front 59

Chemoautotroph

Back 59

- Energy source are Inorganic chemicals
- Carbon source is Carbon Dioxide
- eg. Sulfolobus

Front 60

Heterotroph

Back 60

- Photoheterotroph
- Chemoheterotroph

Front 61

Photoheterotroph

Back 61

- Energy source is Light
- Carbon source are Organic compounds
- eg. of organism- certain prokaryotes such as Rhodobacter

Front 62

Chemoheterotroph

Back 62

- Energy source are organic compounds
- carbon source are organic compounds
- eg. of organism - many prokaryote and protists ( fungi, animals and some plants

Front 63

Molecular systematics

Back 63

:D

Front 64

Universal ancestor

Back 64

Front 65

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Back 65

- allowed for more rapid sequencing of prokaryote genomes
- a handful of soil may contain 10,000 prokaryotic species
- Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) between prokaryotes obscures the root of the tree of life

Front 66

Prokaryotes in Research and Technology

Back 66

HAHAHA

Front 67

Experiments using prokaryotes

Back 67

Have led to important advances in DNA technology

Front 68

Bioremediation

Back 68

- the use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment

Front 69

Some uses of prokaryotes

Back 69

- Recovery of metals from ores
- Synthesis of vitamins
- Production of antibiotics, hormones, and other products

Front 70

Hypothesis of the origin of eukaryotes

Back 70

MUAHGAHAHAH

Front 71

oldest fossil of Eukaryote

Back 71

- oldest fossil date back to 2.1 billion years

Front 72

Hypothesis of endosymbiosis

Back 72

- proposes that mitochondria and plastids ( chloroplasts) were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells

Front 73

endosysmbiont

Back 73

a cell that lives within a host cell

Front 74

Serial endosymbiosis

Back 74

- supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events

Front 75

Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution

Back 75

Front 76

Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution ( The way Guppy likes it ;) )

Back 76

1. Large prokaryote's plasma membrane infolds. Large prokaryote turns into a "primitive heterotrophic eukaryotic cell".
2. Primitive heterotrophic eukaryotic cell, swallows a "heterotrophic aerobic free living prokayote". For some reason, the Large eukaryote doesn't digest it, forming a symbiotic relationship over time. Turns into mitochondria. The large eukartyotic cell turns into a " Large heterotrophic Eurkaryotic cell".
3. "LHEC", engulfs an autotroph (photosynthetic prokaryote). Does not digest it, and over time forms a symbiotic relationship. The prokaryote turns into a plastid (eg. chloroplast)
4. Later evolved to be either a Heterotrophic protist or a autotrophic protist.

Front 77

Mitochondria

Back 77

evolved by endosymbiosis of an aerobic prokaryote

Front 78

Plastid

Back 78

evolved by endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium

Front 79

Key evidence supporting an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids:

Back 79

- Similarities in inner membrane structures and functions
- Division is similar in these organelles and some prokaryotes
- These organelles transcribe and translate their own DNA
- Their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes

Front 80

Protist

Back 80

- the informal name of the kingdom of mostly unicellular eukaryotes
- eukaryotes
- some are colonial and multicellular species
- more structural and functional diversity than any other eukaryotes
- can be very complex
- can reproduce sexually or asexually

Front 81

Nutritional forms of Protista

Back 81

- photoautotroph
- heterotroph
- mixotroph

Front 82

photoautotroph

Back 82

- contain chloroplast

Front 83

heterotroph

Back 83

- absorb organic molecules or ingest larger food particles

Front 84

mixotroph

Back 84

- combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

Front 85

Five Supergroups of Eukaryotes

Back 85

Front 86

It is believed that animal and fungal cells

Back 86

arose from ancestral protists that did not engulf cyanobacteria (photosynthetic prokaryote) after mitochondria, therefore, remained heterotrophic

Front 87

Plants may have arisen

Back 87

from photosynthetic protists containing plastids

Front 88

Protista

Back 88

- live in a aquatic or damp environments (ponds, lakes, and oceans)

Front 89

Amoeba and paranecium

Back 89

- unicellular heterotrophic protists
- amoeba by extension of their cytoplasm in pseudopods and engufs food particles
- paramecia move by beating of cillia

Front 90

Photosynthetic protists such as EUGLENA

Back 90

- found in fresh water enviroments and move by use of flagellum.
- contains chloroplast, therefore, it can make its own food

Front 91

slime molds and water molds

Back 91

- colonial heterotrophic protists
- involved in decomposition of organic materials
- slime molds are clumps of amoeba like cells
- often found on rotting logs

Front 92

Algae

Back 92

- mainly multicellular protists
- photosynthetic
- 3 main groups: Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta, Rhodophyta

Front 93

Chlorophyta

Back 93

- green algae
- unicellular
-most abundant and contain chlorophyl a and b.
- store food as starch in plastid
- have a cellulose wall, closely related to plants

Front 94

Phaeophyta

Back 94

- brown algae
- almost exclusively marine
- have chlorophyl a and c

Front 95

Rhodophyta

Back 95

- red algae
- contain chlorophyll a and some have chlorophyll d
- accessory pigment that give them their reddish colour
- found in deeper dephts than the chlorophyta and phaetophyta