Biology 101 For Prof. Howard

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6 kinds of proteins

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-RECEPTOR PROTEINS- WERE SIGNAL MOLECULES ATTACH
-ENZYMATIC PROTEINS
-CHANNEL PROTEINS
-CARRIER PROTEINS
-RECONIGITION PROTEINS- IMMUNE SYSTEMS
-ADHESION PROTEINS

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT

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MOVEMENT FROM HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION ( NO ENERGY IS REQUIRED + THE RATE DEPENDS ON TEMP, MOLECULES SIZE + CONCENTRATION

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DIFFUSION

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PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, ETHANOL, ITS SMALL FAT SOLUBLE COMPOUND THROUGH THE PHOSPHOLIPIDS LAYERS

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FACILITATED TRANSPORT

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PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF IONS + SMALL POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS THROUGH THE CHANNEL + CARRIER PROTEINS

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OSMOSIS

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PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF WATER ACROSS A SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE

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ISOTONIC SOLUTION

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SOME CONCENTRATION OF WATER INSIDE + OUTSIDE THE CELL

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HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

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HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF WATER OUTSIDE THAN IN, CAUSING IT TO SWELL

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT

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MOVEMENT OF SELECT IONS (Ca++,Na+, K+) +SMALL POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS ACROSS MEMBRANE AGAINST THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT THROUGH CARRIER PROTEINS

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ENDOCYTOSIS

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OCCURS WHEN THE PLASMA MEMBRANE ENGULFS SUBSTANCES

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PHAGOCYTOSIS

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ENGULFING SOLID SUBSTANCE INTO FOOD VACULES

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PINOCYTOSIS

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ENGULFING LIQUID DROPLETS INTO VESICLES. IT MAY BE RECEPTOR MEDIATED USING RECEPTOR PROTEINS

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EXOCYTOSIS

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WHEN LARGE COMPOUNDS ARE DISCHARGED OUT OF CELS FROM VESICLES PROVIDED BY THE GOLGI BODIES

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CELL WALL

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NONLIVING SEMIRIGID SECRETED LAYER OUTSIDE THE PLASMA MEMBRANE THAT PROVIDES PROTECTION + SUPPORT FOR PLANTS, ALGAE + FUNGI CELLS

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PRIMARY CELL WALL

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THIN FLEXIBLE LAYERS COMPOSED OF CELLOSE FOUND IN ALL PLANTS CELL

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PITS

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HOLES THROUGH WALL AROUND PLASMO DESMATA ( STRANDS OF CYTOPLASM THAT CONNECT ADJACENT CELLS

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MIDDLE LAMELLA

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PECTIN LAYER THAT GLUES ADJACENT PRIMARY CELL WALLS TOGETHER IN PLANTS

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KILO CALORIE

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(NUTRIONAL CALORIE) 1000
USED TO MEASURE ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR AN ORGANISM
(1 CALORIE= HEAT REQUIRED TO RAISE 1 GRAM OF WATER 1C

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NEEDS FOR WOMEN AND MEN

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WOMEN= 1800-2000 KCAL/DAY
MEN= 2200-2500 KCAL/DAY

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ATP UNITS

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USED TO MEASURE ENERGY WITHIN CELLS

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1ST LIMITATION ON METABOLISM
(LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS)

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1) ENERGY CAN NEITHER BE CREATED NOR DESTROYED, ONLY CHANGED IN FORM

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2ND LIMITATION ON METABOLISM

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2) EVERY ENERGY TRANSFORMATION RESULTS IN A LOSS OF USABLE ENERGY
(NOT A LOSS IN TOTAL ENERGY)

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ANABOLISM IN AUTOTROPHS

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1)ORGANISMS GET ALL ENERGY DIRECTLY FROM THE ENVIROMENT
2)MOST AUTOTROPHS(PLANTS+ALGAE) CAPTIVE SUNLIGHT USING A PROCESS CALLED PHOTOSYNTHESIS WHICH OCCURS IN CHLOROPLAST

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LIGHT REACTION

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OCCURS IN THE GRANA OF THE CHLOROPLAST+REQUIRES VISIBLE LIGHT.

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PHOTOSYSTEMS

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PACKETS OF 200-300 PIGMENT MOLECULES

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PHOTOSYSTEM I

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CONTAINING CHLOROPHYLL A GREEN PIGMENT THAT ABSORBS RED,VIOLET+BLUE LIGHT. CHLOROPHYLL A IS THE ONLY PIGMENT IN PLANTS THAT CAN DIRECTLY CONVERT LIGHT ENERGY INTO CHEMICAL ENERGY

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PHOTSYSTEM II

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CONTAINING 80 PERCENT CHLOROPHYLL B GREEN PIGAMENTTHAT ABSORB MOSTLY BLUE LIGHT + 20 PERCENT CAROTENOIDS(YELLOW, ORANGE+ RED PIGMENTS THAT ABSORB LIGHT

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cyclic photophosphorylation

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primitive light reactions requring photosystem I that produces only ATP.

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Example

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needed produced

light
photosystem I
ADP+P ATP

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noncyclic photophoshorylation

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normal pathway requring photosystoms I+II that produces ATP, NADPH + oxygen gas. this process must occur 6 times to run the dark reaction once

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extra info

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oxygen gas makes 21% of the present atmosphere + is to tally renewed by plants
+ algae every 2000 years. It combines with itself to form ozone (O3) which protects the earth from ultra violet radiation

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dark reaction

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occurs in the strama of the chloroplast + does not require light

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C3 synthesis

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carbon dioxide in the air is captured by Ru BP carboxylase + is used to make PGAL

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PGAL

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the buildong block for all other organic compounds in the cell

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table

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1 PGAL= worth 46 ATP
1 glucose (2PGAL)=92 ATP
starch(1,000Glucose)=92,000ATP
cellulose (10,000gluclose)= 920,000 ATP

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more info

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on hot days the stroma (opening on plant leave that let CO2 in +O2 out) close to prevent waterloss without CO2, C3 synthesis stops

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c4 synthesis

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used by 20% of all plants to solve this problem. carbon dioxide in the air is captured by pepcarboxylase + used to make oxaloacetate. on hot days when the stomata close, oxalocetate is convented back into CO2 to keep synthesis going.

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more info on C3 and c4 synthesis

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in grasses + legumes C4 + C# synthesis occur in diffrent cells. in cacti + pineapples they occur in diffrent cells + stromata are only open at night. C4 synthesis occur in 80% of all florida plants, but is expensive in cool climates, since 2 ATP are needed to store each CO2

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Anabolism in heterotrophs

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heterotrophs must get their energy + nutrients to perform. large compounds are digested into their basic units, absorbed + reassembled into new compounds

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table animals

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Starch > gluclose-gylcogen/
oil>glycerol+fatty acid> fat/ plant protein>amino acids> animal proteins

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Holotrophs

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kill + eat other organisms (animals + protozono)

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parasite

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absorb nutrients from a living host + provide nothing in return(in animals, protozans, fungi, bacteria

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suprotrophs

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decay, dead organisms(fungi, bacteria)

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digestion

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is a hydroylsis reation + is not part of cellur respiration because no usable energy is released

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glycolysis

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occurs in the cytoplasm + does not require oxygen

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aerobic respiration

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occurs in the mitochondria + requires oxygen

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electron transport train

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occurs in the cristae, makes ATP by chemiosmosis using ATP synthesis

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table

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polysachridas- dissachridas- monosachridas
triglycerides> fatty acids + glycerol
proteins > peptide chains > amino acids

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Glycolysis + Aerobic respiration

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should release 38 ATP in usable from each gluclose. 39% effincey with the remaining lost as heat. kidney, liver + heart cells get 38 ATP, but brain, muscles + most other cells get only 36 ATP. this is because the 2 NADH (worth 6 ATP) produced by glycolysis must transfer their H+ and electrons to either NAD+ FAD inside the mitochondria
(NADH=6ATP, 2FADH2= 4ATP) without oxygen NADH + FADH2 cannot be chased in at the electron transport chain, and aerobic respiration stops

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anerobic respiration

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occurs in the cytoplasm + does not require oxygen

the main goal is to free up NAD+ so glycolysis can continue

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lactate fermantion

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occurs in animal muscle cells when no oxygen is present

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glycolysis + lactate fermentation

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release 2 ATP in usable form from each gluclose (2% efficent) most of the energy is lost as heat

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symptoms of lacatate buildup

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sweating
muscle fatigue
muscle cramps
rigor mortis

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alcoholic fermantation

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occurs in prokarotic cells + yeast when no oxygen is present

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glycolysis + alcoholic fermantion

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release 2 ATP in usable form from each glucose (beer & wine)

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alternate fuels for aerobic respiration

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even though other compounds can be used for food for fuel,the brain can only use gluclose, + uses about 2/3 of free blood gluclose

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order of fuel consumption during starvation in animals

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1)free glucose
2)glycogen( most used 1/2
hours of exercise-12 hours with out exercise)
3)fat (78%)
4)proteins (21%)

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factors that slow down or stop aerobic respiration

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A)lack of oxygen
B)lack of iron
C)lack of vitamin B
D)lack of fuel
E)lack of optimum
F)presence of inhibator
G)conditions that denature proteins
H)mutagenic agents

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Information storage

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story of DNA in the chromosomes of the nucleus. the set of instructions for gene language, called the genetic code, is the same for all living cells

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4 letters

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Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine + thymine (nitrogen bases in the nucleotides). they always pair up in the DNA as A-t and C-G.

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64 words (triplets)

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names for amino acids. Each triplet consists of 3 adjacent letter, and words cannot overlap.the code is degenrate because there are 64 words but only 20 amino acids more important amino acids have synonym names

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valine

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CAA, CAC, CAT, CAG

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An initiator triplet

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(TAC) acts like a capital letter in a sentence (starting triplet)

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terminator triplet

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(ATT, ATC, ACT) acts like a period in a sentence (ending triplet)

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more info

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sentence starts with an inhibator triplet, ends with a terminator triplet, and may haveany number of naming triplets, in any order in between each sentence called a ---------, is the set of instructions on how to make particular protein

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more info

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23 pairs of chromosomes house 30,000 genes in each human cell. the DNA is coiled+wrapped around histones to form nucleosomes to conserve space in cells. a single human nucleus 5mm wide, contains about 2mm of DNA. although everybody cell has a full set of genes only certain genes are allowed to function in each tissue

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transcription

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story of how messenger RNA is formed to send instructions into the cytoplasm

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RNA polymerase

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attaches to a promoter site on the DNA + the Z strand seprate

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more info

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strand mRNA form along the gene with mirror image words called codons. a completed mRNA strand begin with an inititator codon, ends with a terminator codon, + lists the primary structure of a protein

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DNA Triplets
mRNA

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DNA (TAC,AAG,GGC,CAT,ACT
mRNA (AUG,UUC,CCG,GUA,UGA

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mRNA in eukuryotic cells

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about 15% of the mRNA strand has usable code (sections called exons)introns (unused parts) are cut out + the exons are spliced together by ribozymes.If different exons are saved different proteins can be made from the same gene it is estimated that each human gene makes at least 3 different proteins

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edited mRNA

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strands move out through a pore in the nuclear membrane into the ctyoplasm and the Z DNA strands zip back together along the gene

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translation

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story of how a protein is formed by a ribosome with the help of transfer RNA (TRNA)

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ribosome makeup

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is made of 2 subunits composed of 60% ribosomed RNA (TRNA) + 40% protein. the ribosome assembles around the initator codan on the mRNA strand, the only place it can attach

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2nd part of translation

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it then moves down the mRNA reading one word at a time at a rate of 15 codons per second

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3rd part of translation

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+ RNA brings in the proper amino acids to be added to the protein chain

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4th part of tranlation

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when the ribosome reads the terminator codon the protein is released + automatically assumes this protein is released automatically assumes its proper shape because of hydrogen bonding. an average of 400 amino acids takes about 20 minutes to make

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5th part of translation

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groups of 30-40 ribosomes (polyribosomes) may read the mRNA one after another at the same time

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control of protein synthesis

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to gain full control over a cell, DNA must be able to create, limit +
destroy enzymes

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prokaryotic cells control enzymes production by making

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1.) Inhibitors-to destroy existing enzymes
2.) Enzymes to destroy the mRNA (by removing the initiator codon)to prevent new enzymes from forming

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exons

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strands that have usable code

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introns

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unused parts of mRNA

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repressor proteins

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to prevent the formation of new mRNA

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Eukaryotic cell controls
DNA methylation

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(attachment of CH3 to DNA nitrogen bases) permanently turns off genes

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Eukaryotic cell controls
histone acetylation

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attachment of COCH3 to amino acids in a nucleosome. temporally stops gene function, loosening nucleosomes. promotes transcription

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Eukaryotic cell controls
enhancers

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cause folding of the DNA + activation of promoter sites

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mutations

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mistakes that form abnormal protein since most mutationd are harmful, DNA repair enymes try to eliminate them. the 1% that are harmless or benefical provide the basis for evolution.

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things that cause mutations, major mutagens

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1.)radiation.)xrays, uv radiation, radioactivity
2.)organic compounds: nicotine, alcohol, anabolic steroids, pesticide, asbestos, caffeine, thalidomide

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oncogenes

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growth, controls genes that malfunction disrupting homeostasis, causing cancer

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apoptosis

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programmed cell death

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angiogenesis

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forms new blood cells to feed the tumor

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metastsis

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spreading to rest of body

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cancer treatment

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surgery, radation, chemotherapy, cancer vaccines, anti-angiogenesis drugs

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pectin

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A substance in the middle lamella that cements adjoining plant cells together.

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heterotrophs

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Organisms that obtain their nutrition by breaking down organic molecules in foods; include animals and fungi.