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226 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The residue bound together by a peptide linkage constitutes what organic chemical functional group? |
Amide |
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Signal sequence encoded within a protein's linear amino acid sequence serves what function? |
To mark proteins for transport to other sites within cells following translation |
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The spatial and stoichiometric arrangement of hemoglobin's tetrameric subunits constitutes what level of its protein structure? |
Quaternary structure |
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Function of the cerebrum (or cortex)? |
Largest part of the human brain Associated with higher brain function (ex. thought and action) Divided into four sections (lobes) 1. Frontal lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Occipital lobe 4. Temporal lobe |
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Function/location of frontal lobe? |
Location: Frontal and upper area of the cortex Function: Carries out higher mental processes such as thinking, decision making, and planning |
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Function/location of Parietal Lobe? |
Location: Upper, back part of the cortex Function: Processes sensory information that had to do with taste, temperature, and touch |
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Function/location of Occipital Lobe? |
Location: Bottom, back part of the cortex Function: Responsible for processing visual information from the eyes |
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Function/location of Temporal Lobe? |
Location: Bottom middle part of cortex, right behind the temples Function: Responsible for processing auditory information from the ears (hearing) |
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Function/location of Cerebellum? |
Location: Lower area of the brain, below the pons Function: Responsible for balance and coordination of muscles and the body |
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Function of the Brain Stem? |
Responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. |
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Function of Midbrain? |
Function: Body temperature regulation, motor control, and sleep cycles. |
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Function/location of Pons? |
Location: Area of the hindbrain that sits directly above the medulla Function: Connects upper and lower parts of the brain |
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Function/location of Medulla? |
Location: Lower part of the brain stem Function: Carries out and regulates life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing and heart rate |
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Function/location of Hypothalamus? |
Location: Above the pituitary gland and below the thalamus Function: Responsible for behaviors such as hunger and thirst, as well as the maintenance of body temperature |
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Function/location of Amygdala? |
Location: Part of Limbic System, at the end of the hippocampus Function: Responsible for the response and memory of emotions, especially fear |
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Function/location of Hippocampus? |
Location: Part of the Limbic system, in each temporal lobe Function: Responsible for processing of long term memory and emotional responses |
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Function/location of Thalamus? |
Location: Part of the forebrain, below the corpus callosum Function: Responsible for relaying information from the sensory receptors to proper areas of the brain where it can be processed |
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Corpus Callosum |
Location: Above the Thalamus, under the cortex Function: Connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain |
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All amino acids contain what functional group? |
Carboxylic functional group |
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Which hormone does the cortex of the adrenal glen produce? |
Aldosterone |
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Reabsorption of water at the collecting duct of the nephron is the function of which of the following hormones? |
Vasopressin |
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Where in eukaryotic cells is DNA transcribed? |
Nucleus |
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Where is translation completed for proteins that are to be transported outside the cell? |
Rough ER |
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Where in eukaryotic cells is rRNA formed? |
Nucleolus |
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Microfilaments are made up of? |
Actin |
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What organizes the mitotic spindle during mitosis? |
Centrioles |
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What is a characteristic of facultative anaerobes? |
Able to survive in the presence and absence of oxygen |
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How many chromatids are present after the S phase of mitosis? |
92 |
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How many chromosomes are present after the S phase of mitosis? |
46 |
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How many chromosomes are present in each spermatozoan after Meiosis II? |
23 |
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Before birth, in what phase of meiosis are primary oocytes arrested? |
Prophase I |
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Where is sperm stored and matured before ejaculation? |
Epididymis |
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What secreted testosterone? |
Leydig cells |
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What is the final, fully mature product of meiosis in male mammals? |
Spermatozoa |
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How many polar bodies are made from the complete maturation of 1 oogonium? |
2 |
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Where does fertilization usually occur? |
Fallopian tube |
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Totipotent cells differentiate into? |
Any type of cells |
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Umbilical arteries do what? |
Carry blood from the fetus's heart to the placenta |
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During development, when is the embryo considered to become a fetus? |
At the end of the first trimester |
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To maintain the resting potential of a neuron, what is true? |
ATP is metabolized |
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After a signal is received by the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron, the signal travels immediately through which segment of the neuron? |
Soma |
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Axons of neurons in the CNS are myelinated with what type of cell? |
Oligodendrocytes |
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Sustaining a neuron's resting potential primarily relies on what? |
Active transport |
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What is true immediately following a signal that reaches threshold and causes an action potential? |
Sodium gated channels open |
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The situation in which greater than normal stimulation is required to activate an action potential is called? |
Relative refractory period |
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What is the difference between white and grey matter? |
Grey matter has unmyelinated axons |
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How many hormones does the anterior pituitary gland synthesize? |
7 |
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Glucagon is produced by what cells? |
Alpha cells |
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Which layer of tissue prevents food from entering the trachea? |
Epiglottis |
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What normally occurs after the diaphragm contracts? |
Inspiration |
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The diaphragm is considered which of the following types of muscle? |
Skeletal muscle |
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How does alkalosis affect the rate of respiration? |
It decrease to increase the buildup of carbon dioxide |
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What is the pH considered to be when the individual has acidosis? |
Abnormally low |
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Which valve separates the atria of the heart from the ventricles? |
Atrioventricular valves |
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The tricuspid valve separates? |
Right atrium and right ventricle |
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Tie bicuspid valves separates? |
left atrium and left ventricle |
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What valve separates the left ventricle from the aorta? |
Aortic valve |
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What valve separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery? |
Pulmonary valve |
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How are ventricular muscle cells connected? |
Intercalated discs |
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What is the Vagus nerve? |
The vagus nerve is either one of two cranial nerves which are extremely long, extending from the brain stem all the way to the viscera. It acts to slow down the heart rate. The vagus nerves carry a wide assortment of signals to and from the brain, and they are responsible for a number of instinctive responses in the body. |
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How many portal systems exist in the human body? |
3 |
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Erythrocytes do not have what organelles? |
Nucleus Mitochondria Lysosomes |
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Red blood cells obtain their ATP from which processes? |
Glycolysis |
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What is hematocrit? |
The percentage of red blood cells in a sample of blood |
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White blood cell with granulocytes? |
Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils |
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Which two cell classes are agranulocytes? |
Lymphocytes Monocytes |
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Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus are called? |
T cells |
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Which cell is responsible for the production of antibodies? |
B cells |
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Platelets are known as? |
Thrombocytes |
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From what organ is erythropoietin released and what is this hormone's primary function? |
Kidney, stimulation of red blood cell development |
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What organs secretes thrombopoietin and what is this hormone's primary function? |
Liver & kidney, stimulation of platelet development |
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Where in the body do we find the highest partial pressure of oxygen in the blood? |
Lungs |
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Which inhibitor can be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrate? |
Competitive inhibitor |
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A cell is placed in a hypertonic environment. What can be said about the osmotic pressure? |
The environment has a higher osmotic pressure |
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Innate immunity is also called? |
Nonspecific immunity |
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As part of adaptive immunity, b-cells can turn into which one of the following cell types? |
Plasma cells |
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Which cells is part of cell mediated immunity? |
T-cells |
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Which drives humoral immunity? |
Antibodies |
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Cells infected with viruses produce what to protect against viral infection? |
Interferons |
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Types of T-cells? |
Helper T-cells Memory T-cells Suppressor T-cells |
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Where are lacteals located? |
Small intestine |
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Chief cells in stomach secrete? |
Pepsinogen |
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Protein digestion is started in the? |
Stomach |
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What is the storage from of glucose? |
Glycogen |
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How can fat-soluble compounds be transported through the body? |
Insoluble chylomicrons act as carriers |
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Where is ammonia converted to urea? |
Liver |
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In which part of the nephron is glucose primarily reabsorbed? |
Proximal convoluted tubule |
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The defending loop of Henle is only permeable to? |
Water |
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What is the direct function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum? |
To store and release calcium ions |
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What role does calcium play in muscle contraction? |
Works to expose myosin-binding sites of actin |
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Many different species arising from a common ancestor can be explained by? |
Adaptive radiation |
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Amphoteric species can? |
Accept and donate a proton |
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Peptide bond formation can be further classified as a? |
Dehydration reaction |
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Disulfide bonds do not form an essential part of a protein's? |
Primary structure |
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The class of enzymes that cleaves a functional group from one molecule and incorporates it into another is called? |
Transferases |
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How is an endergonic reaction described? |
Energy is required |
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If deltaG>0, how is the reaction described? |
Non-Spontaneous |
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How can Vmax be increased if an enzyme is saturated in a given reaction? |
Increase the concentration of an enzyme |
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Where do noncompetitive inhibitors bind? |
Allosteric site of enzyme |
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An inhibitor that essentially locks the substrate into the active site of the enzyme is? |
An uncompetitive inhibitor |
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The linear sequence of small proteins is best analyzed using? |
Edman degration |
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Mannose can be classified as? |
Aldohexose |
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How is galactose related to glucose? |
Galactose is the C-4 epimer of glucose |
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Describe diastomers? |
They have different densities Molecules are not mirror images of each other. Ex: cis and trans isomers are Diastereomers. |
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A reducing sugar can be described as? |
Sugars with a hemiacetal |
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Where is cholesterol normally found? |
Ribosomes |
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How do nucleosides differ from nucleotides? |
Nucleosides lack a phosphate greoup |
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Explain Chargaff's rule |
The total number of purines must equal to the total number of of pyrimidines in DNA |
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Histones are? |
Positively charged |
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A repeating unit of nucleotides at the end of DNA is called? |
Telomere |
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The small amount of chromatin that remains condensed and is late in replication is called? |
Heterochromatin |
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Because more than one codon can code for a single amino acid, the genetic code is described as? |
Degenerate |
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A mutation the results in a premature stop codon is known as? |
Nonsense mutation |
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Post-transcpiptional processing in eukaryotes splices out non-coding sequences known as? |
Introns |
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How does mRNA, post processing, exist from the nucleus? |
Through nuclear pores |
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Phosphorylation can? |
Both activate and deactivate proteins |
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Prenylation of a protein can be defined by? |
Addition of lipid groups |
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How can a operon be described? |
A number of genes that are transcribed into one mRNA strand |
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Why does acetylation of histones occur? |
To allow for DNA transcription |
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Proteins that pass completely through the phospholipid bilayer of a cell can be classified as? |
Transmembrane proteins |
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Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning? |
Only the concentration of dissolved solute particles must be known to deduce a solution's osmotic pressure |
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The phenomena in which the energy released as one substrate goes down its concentration gradient is used to drive another substrate up its concentration gradient is named? |
Secondary active transport |
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Glycolysis of one molecule of glucose yields? |
2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvate molecules |
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NADH and FADH2 act as reducing agents needed for the proper function of? |
The electron transport chain |
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The formation of ketone bodies is a result of? |
Lipid catabolism |
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The complete combustion of fat gives? |
9 kcal/g |
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When the stomach is empty what is secreted by the stomach? |
Ghrelin One of the main hormones to stimulate hunger A hormone produced by specialized cells that line the stomach and the pancreas. |
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What is a carbohydrate made of? |
A molecule composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen |
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Is sucrose a carbohydrate? |
Yes |
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What are the components go lactose? |
One galactose and one glucose |
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What are the components of sucrose? |
One fructose and one glucose |
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Is maltose a monosaccharide or a disaccharide? |
Disaccharide |
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Is xylose a monosaccharide or a disaccharide? |
Monosaccharide |
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What element is found in some carbohydrates? |
Oxygen |
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What is most commonly referred to as a sugar? |
Disaccharide |
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What is the mail purpose of carbohydrates in the body? |
Energy storage |
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Which classification does glucose fall under: aldohexose, ketohexose, aldopentose, ketopentose? |
Aldohexose |
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Which classification does fructose fall under: aldohexose, ketohexose, aldopentose, ketopentose? |
Ketohexose |
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The structure of glucose is? |
Glucose is a D sugar because its OH group furthest from the carbonyl group goes to the right in the Fischer projection |
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Where dos transcription occurs?
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Nucleus |
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Which classification does glucose fall under: pyranose, furanose, pyrulose, ketoacetal? |
Pyranose |
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Which classification does ribose fall under: pyranose, furanose, pyrulose, ketoacetal? |
Furanose |
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What is the systemic name for lactose? |
B-D-galactopyranosyl-(1,4)-D-glucopyranose |
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What is a fatty acid? |
A carbohydrate with a long amphipathic tail |
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Where are triglycerides primarily digested? |
Duodenum |
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What picks up fats from the small intestine? |
Lacteals |
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Where are lipids found in the cell? |
The cell membrane |
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What is the name of a spherical drop formed by a bilayer of lipids? |
Liposome |
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In what phase of protein structure would disulfide bonds NOT be involved? |
Primary structure |
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What is quaternary structure? |
The interaction of two polypeptides |
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What is the bond that joins two amino acids? |
Peptide bonds |
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What is eliminated in the formation of a bond between two amino acids? |
H2O |
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Trinucleotide codon directly code for how many alpha amino acids? |
20 |
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What are the components of nucleic acids? |
Ribose and Nitrogenous base |
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What are the components of a nucleotide? |
A phosphate A sugar A nitrogenous base |
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What two components are linked together between adjacent nucleotides in DNA? |
A sugar and a phosphate group |
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Which are purines? |
Guanine and Adenine |
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Which are Pyrimidines? |
Cytosine Thymine Uracil |
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What are the products of glycolysis? |
Pyruvate ATP NADH |
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Where does glycolysis occur? |
Cytoplasm |
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Where does pyruvate become first in the process of aerobic respiration? |
Acetyl CoA |
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What are the products of the Krebs cycle? |
ATP Acetyl CoA |
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Where does the Krebs cycle occur? |
Mitochondrial membrane |
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Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur? |
Inner mitochondrial membrane |
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Which enzyme is responsible for the creation of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation? |
ATP synthase |
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During anaerobic respiration, where does the ATP come from? |
Glycolysis |
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What molecule yields the most ATP per molecule when oxidized in the electron transport chain? |
NADH |
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Where does NADH drop its electrons in the electron transport chain? |
Complex I |
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Where does FADH2 drop its electrons in the electron transport chain? |
complex II |
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How many NADH and FADH2 are produced in the Krebs cycle per glucose molecule? |
6 NADH 2 FADH2 |
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What is the last thing to be reduced in oxidative phosphorylation? |
O2 |
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What is the last thing to be oxidized in oxidative phosphorylation? |
ADP |
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In which direction is the lagging strand of DNA replicated? |
5' to 3' |
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What are characteristics of RNA folding? |
Hairpin loop Interior loop Bulge |
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What is the function of helicase? |
Separating strands of DNA |
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What is the function of ligase? |
Joining Okazaki fragments |
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What is the function of DNA polymerase? |
Adding complementary bases |
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What is the function of primase? |
Initiating replication |
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What is the function of telomerase? |
Attaching to the end of chromosomes to aid in replication there |
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What is the function of topoisomerase? |
Ensuring that DNA does not wind too tight |
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Where does DNA replication occur? |
Nucleus |
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Which enzyme is the primary DNA proofreader? |
DNA polymerase |
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Would reduction of a nitrogenous base be considered a type of DNA damage? |
No |
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What type of RNA aids in the processing of pre-mRNA in the nucleus? |
snRNA |
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Which enzyme transcribes tRNA from DNA? |
RNA Polymerase III |
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Which enzyme transcribes mRNA from DNA? |
RNA Polymerase II |
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Which enzyme transcribes rRNA from DNA? |
RNA Polymerase I |
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What is translation? |
Reading mRNA strands to produce a peptide |
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How many subunits does a ribosome have? |
2 |
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In which direction is the leading strand of DNA replicated? |
5' to 3' |
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In which direction is DNA read by RNA polymerase? |
3' to 5' |
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In which direction is RNA synthesized from DNA by RNA polymerase? |
5' to 3' |
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In which direction are peptides synthesized by ribosomes? |
N terminus to C terminus |
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What are types of mutations? |
Insertion Point deletion Substitution |
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What is a missense mutation? |
A mutation that results in a substitution of one amino acid for another |
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What are some stop codons? |
UAG UGA UAA |
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What is a bacteriophage? |
A virus that infects bacterial cells |
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What is true of lytic infection? |
The virus hijacks host machinery for reproduction Virons are made within the cell The cell eventually lyses |
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Prokaryotes do not have? |
Mitochondria |
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A cell into which water flows can be said to be? |
Hypertonic to its surroundings |
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Hypotonic Solution |
Solution - Less solutes, more water Cell - More solutes, less water Water travels passively down the concentration gradient through the cell membrane into the cell. This influx of water causes the cell to swell and maybe lyse. |
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Hypertonic Solution |
Solution - More solutes, less water Cell - Less solutes, more water Water travels passively down the concentration gradient through the cell membrane out of the cell. This influx of water causes the cell to shrivel. |
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Isotonic Solution |
Solution - "Equal" solutes, "equal" water Cell - "Equal" solutes, "equal" water The "net" concentration of solutes and water remains equal, so there is no net change in cell membrane shape. However, there is technically still the travel of water into and out of the membrane--there is just no net result. |
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What can be said about the membrane of gram-positive bacteria? |
It has two exterior membranes |
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The cell wall of fungi are called? |
Septa |
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Chitin is a? |
Polysaccharide |
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Fungi are mostly found in which developmental stage? |
Haploid |
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What is an autotroph? |
Any organism capable of self-nourishment by using inorganic materials as a source of nutrients and using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis as a source of energy, as most plants and certain bacteria and protists. |
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Which of the following houses DNA in prokaryotes? |
Nucleoid |
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What is the role of most antibiotics? |
Destroy bacteria |
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When a virus binds to a host cell and before its nucleic acid is injected, what must occur? |
Viral enzymes must break down a part of the host plasma membrane |
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A temperate virus is one that? |
Can undergo the lysogenic cycle |
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Is a archaea considered a prokaryote? |
Yes |
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Chemotroph |
Any organism that oxidizes inorganic or organic compounds as its principal energy source. |
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Phototroph |
Any organism that uses light as its principal source of energy. |
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Heterotroph |
An organism requiring organic compounds for its principal source of food. |
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What catabolic process allow chemotrophs to claim their energy? |
Oxidation |
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Spirilla are what shape? |
Helical |
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Bacterial transformation is defined as? |
DNA from the environment is incorporated into the genome |
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Is a virus considered to be a living organism? |
No |
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Which part of a bacteriophage first attaches to the host? |
Tail fibers |
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What is one advantage to the lytic cycle? |
Rapid viral reproduction |
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What can destroy the bacterial cell walls? |
Lysozyme |
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A coating of polysaccharides that surrounds a bacterial cell is called? |
Capsule |
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The ability for flagella to rotate is dictated by the amount of? |
ATP |
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Bacterial pili are used to? |
Attach to objects |
