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106 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Glial cells
*4 functions |
Non-neuronal cells that perform important communication functions too
Direct their growth, keep their chemical environment stable, provide energy, secrete chemicals to restore damage Capable of the signature functions of neurons, including releasing chemicals that influence neurons, responding to chemicals from neurons, and changing in response to experience |
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Common features of neurons
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*Outer membrane
*Cell body, which contains a nucleus *Contain mitochondria (turn O2 & glucose into energy) |
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3 special features that enable neurons to communicate signals efficiently
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1. Structure (fibers extend outward, get close to other neurons, mix with other fibers... fibers = axons & dendrites)
2. "excitable" surface membrane of some of its fibers 3. Synaptic gap/synapse |
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Axons
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Fibers that carry signals away from the cell body, out to where communication occurs with other neurons
Each neuron generally has only one axon leaving the cell body, but that one axon may have many branches |
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Dendrites
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Fibers that receive signals from the axons of other neurons & carry those signals to the cell body
A neuron can have many dendrites Have many branches |
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Action potential
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Sudden wave of electrochemical changes in the axon
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Describe the process of a neuron "firing"
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Normally: cell pumps out postive charges, retains negative ones, is POLARIZED
Positive molecules pumped out are attracted to those with a negative charge This creates electrochemical potential Which drives the positively charged molecules toward the inside of the cell Cell membrane keeps many out Some can pass through openings/channels in the membrane These channels are distributed along axons & dendrites Normally channels along axon = closed Changes in the environment around cell can depolarize its membrane, causing gates in area to open & allowing positive molecules to rush in Next area of axon becomes depolarized Neighboring gates open Sequence continues, wave of change in electrochemical potential spreads down axon Sudden wave of EC changes is called an action potential |
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Myelin
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fatty substance that wraps around some axons & speeds action potentials
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Vesicles
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Little bags that store neurotransmitters
Found at the tips of axons |
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Describe the relationship between action potential & neurotransmitters
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When an action potential reaches the end of an axon, a neurotransmitter is released into the synapse, where it spreads to reach the next, or postsynaptic, cell
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Receptor
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sites on the surface of a cell that allow only one type of neurotransmitter to fit into them, triggering a chemical response that may lead to an action potential
Proteins |
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Summary of communication between neurons
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1. An action potential shoots down the axon, away from the cell body
2. NT is released into the synapse, where the dendrites of neighboring neurons detect it 3. If there is a receptor for this NT on the dendrites, the NT & receptor bind, creating an electrochemical signal 4. If that signal is strong enough, it spreads down the dendrites & across the cell body of the next neuron, & begins another action potential 4. If that signal is strong enough, it spreads down the dendrites & across the cell body of the next neuron, & begins another action potential |
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Postsynaptic potential
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change in the membrane potential of a neuron that has received stimulation from another neuron
the change can make the cell more or less likely to fire |
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Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
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Makes a neuron more likely to fire an action potential
Ex. Calcium or sodium (positively charged molecules) flow into the neuron, it becomes slightly less polarized--this depolarization can lead the neuron to fire an action potentail |
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
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Less likely to fire an action potential
Ex. If positively charged molecules (such as potassium) flow out or negative ones flow in the neuron becomes slightly more polarized |
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2 components of the PNS
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Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous system |
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Somatic NS
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carries info from senses to CNS< & sends movement instructions back to muscles
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Autonomic NS
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transmits messages between CNS & the body's organs & glands
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Parasympathetic & sympathetic:
Branches of what? Do what? |
Branches of: Autonomic Nervous System, part of the PNS
Para: slows organs & gland activity to conserve the body's energy Sympathetic: prepares body for action through fight or flight response |
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2 parts of the CNS
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Brain & Spinal Cord
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3 functional areas of cerebral cortex & what do they do
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Sensory: receives info
Motor: controls voluntary movement Association: receives info from more than one sense, combines sensory & motor info |
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3 types of Neurotransmitters
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Small molecules
Peptides Gases |
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Small molecules
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Type of neurotransmitter
Found in CNS & PNS Examples: Acetylcholine Norepinephrine Serotonin Dopamine GABA Glutamate |
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Peptides
Gases |
Endorphins: Pain control
Nitric oxide, memory |
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Describe the body's response to stress
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Pituitary (controlled by the hypothalamus) releases hormones
They travel down to the body In particular to the adrenal gland Releases cortisol Cortisol tells immune system to take a break Talks to hypothalamus, helps brian mobilize for stress |
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Longitudinal Fissure
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divide between L & R hemispheres of the brain
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3 protective layers of tissue of the brain
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Dura mater: outer layer
Arachnoid Pia matter: pia is closely adhered to the brain surface & enters it into all of the sucli |
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The gap that develops between the arachnoid layer & the pia is bridged by web-like strands of tissue called ______.
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trabeculae.
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Where is cerebrospinal fluid?
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fills the subarachnoid space gap in the layers of tissue that protect the brain
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Function of the hypothalamus
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Regulates homeostasis
Regulates important bodily functions such as thirst, hunger, sexual drives, temperature regulation, & several emotional states |
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The pons grows even larger as mammals...
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Learn to use their hands & fingers
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Function of the medulla
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Involved in regulating many essential functions such as respiration, heart rate, & levels of arousal
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All sensory information except for _____ must past through the _____ on its way to the ______ _______.
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All sensory info except OLFACTION must pass through the THALAMUS on its way to the CEREBRAL CORTEX.
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Gyrencephalic
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Covered with gyri & sulci
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Lissencehalic
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Smooth-brained
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Precentral gyrus concerned with
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motor activity of the body
little man drawing |
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Postcentral gyrus: funciton
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constitutes the somatosensory representation of the whole body
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Medulla
Division, Major Functions |
Hindbrain
Regulating of breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure |
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Reticular formation
Division, Major Functions |
hindbrain
(also extends into midbrain) regulation of arousal & attention |
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Cerebellum
Division, Major Functions |
Hindbrain
Control of fine movements and coordination of certain cognitive processes |
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Various nuclei
Division, Major Functions |
Midbrain
Relay of sensory signals to forebrain; creation of automatic responses to certain stimuli |
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Substantia nigra
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Midbrain
Smooth initiation of movement |
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Hypothalamus
Division, Major Functions |
Forebrain
Regulation of hunger, thirst, and sex drives |
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Thalamus
Division, Major Functions |
Forebrain
Interpretation & relaying of sensory information |
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Hippocampus
Division, Major Functions |
Forebrain
Formation of new memories |
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Amygdala
Division, Major Functions |
Forebrain
Connection of sensations & emotions |
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Cerebral cortex
Division, Major Functions |
Forebrain
Analysis of sensory information Control over voluntary movements Abstract thinking Other complex cognitive activity |
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Corpus callosum
Division, Major Functions |
Forebrain
Transfer of information between the two cerebral hemispheres |
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Where is the somatosensory cortex?
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Behind the central sulcus
Parietal lobe |
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Where is the motor cortex?
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In front of the central sulcus
Frontal Lobe |
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What information does the somatosensory cortex receive?
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Info from the skin about touch, pain, and temperature
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What happens if your parietal lobe is damaged?
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Lose your sense of space for the opposite side of your world
Contralateral neglect |
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The left hemisphere of the brain is particularly important for ________
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LANGUAGE
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Where is Broca's area?
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Above the Silvan/lateral fissure
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What happens to people who damage Broca's area?
*Broca's aphrasia |
They don't speak as much but they try
They understand everything that is said to them They can write & read the written word They are aware that they have a problem |
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Where is Weirnecke's area?
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Back of the temporal lobe
**Primary auditory cortex is nearby!! |
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What happens to people who damage Weirnecke's area?
*Weirnecke's aphasia |
Back of the temporal lobe
Don't talk a lot "Word salad" Meaningless Don't know that they are impaired Don't understand what they're saying, they don't realize |
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All our sensory information besides ________ has to pass through the _________ before it goes to the _________.
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Smell
Thalamus Cortex |
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Smell takes an express route: Comes in from _______ _______ and goes directly to the _________.
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Olfactory bulbs
Cortex |
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Ventricles
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Spaces in the brain that have cerebral spinal fluid flowing through them
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Septum
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Covers the ventricles, prevents CSF from sloshing around
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Name the 5 divisions of the brain
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Telencephalon
Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon |
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Describe an Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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Electlodes on head
Measure electrical activity When neurons are active they create an electric current People can look at the pen recording & tell you what it is associated with Very fast: good temporal resolution Not good spatially The lines are labeled by where the electrodes are |
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Describe a PET Scan
Positron Emission Tomography |
People injected w/ radioactivity (oxygen, glucose, neurotransmitters)
Substances are taken up by the brain ex. Dopamine General actiivty levels These specific neurons are using a lot of oxygen, for example That means--those neurons are active right now Picture is taken of the radioactivity Gives you a picture of where the activity is occuring Good spatially b/c you can tell where the activity is on the screen Problem: you can only take pictures every few seconds Red = increased activity Slow, bad temporal resolution |
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Telencephalon
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Major division of the brain
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Diencephalon
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Major division of the brain
Thalamus, Hypothalamus |
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Mesencephalon
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Major division of the brain
Midbrain |
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Metencephalon
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Major division of the brain
Pons, cerebellum |
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Myelencephalon
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Major division of the brain
Medulla oblongata |
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MRI = Magnetic Resonance Imaging
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Causes all the atoms in your brain to line up together & spin @ same orientation Then: shoot a radio wave into your brain once everything is aligned Disturbs the atoms, makes them wobble Areas of higher density wobble a different amount from areas of lower density You get a nice picture of the brain that looks like a real brain Great spatially Very exact--tumor, damage Only to look at structure, not activity |
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FMRI = Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
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Mixes an MRI with a PET s can
Good spatially Also tells you about activity Combination of structure & function |
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Primary visual cortex surrounds which sulcus?
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Calcharine sulcus
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Hemispheric specialization:
L vs. R |
L: language comprehension & production
*Logic (math, manipulation of very concrete things, rules) R: Spatial relations, face recognition, art & music |
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Vision crossing takes place in the ______ _______.
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Optic chiasm
*Different from the corpus collosum *Information that hits the nasal part of your eyeball (closest to your nose) does cross there |
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Why is auditory information bilateral?
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Comes in through your ears, enters your brain stem, is shared across both sides in the brain stem
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In a person w/o a corpus collosum...
*Key flashed in L visual field |
Goes to right
Language is on the L though So they will say they didn't see anything |
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2 Common types of glial cells & describe them
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Astrocyte: shaped like star
Provide nutritional support for neurons Help deliver nutrients to them Filter out toxins Oligodendrocyte: Provide the myelin sheath to the axons Have a number of different arms/processes that come off of them Each arm will wrap itself around a section of axon over & over again so that it provides many layers |
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Neuroconduction
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traveling of the signal down the axon
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What fluid typically exists outside of neurons?
What kind of ions are inside? |
Outside: Na+ Cl- fluid
Inside: Potassium K+ &some negatively charged proteins |
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Axon hillcock
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Where computation takes place: am i going to fire or not?
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Node of Ranvier
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Nodes between the myelin where you have sodium channels
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What happens to NTs in the synapse?
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Retaken back up into the cell or can be deactivated
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Which NT is broken down? (only one)
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Acetylcholine (small molecule NT)
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Name the 2 kinds of receptors & describe them
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1. Ionotrophic: transmitter binding cuases ion channel to open
*Has ion gates *When the NT opens it, ions go in or out *Positive ions going in then it is an excitatory receptor (sodium, potassium, calcium) 2. Metabotrophic: transmitter binding causes biochemical changes in the cell *Don't have ion gates *More complicated *When a NT binds to it, it sets a biochemical cascade in motion in the postsynaptic cell *Causes the production of other chemicals that are interpreted by the postsynaptic cell as excitatory or inhibitory b/c of the things they do |
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Ionotrophic Receptors
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Transmitter binding causes ion channels to open
*Has ion gates *When NT opens it, ions go in or out *Positive ions going in--then it is an excitatory receptor |
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Metabotrophic receptors
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Transmitter binding causes biochemical changes in the cell
When an NT binds to it, it sends a biochemical cascade in motion in the postsynaptic cell Causes the production of other chemicals that are interpreted by the postsynaptic cell as excitatory or inhibitory b/c of the things they do |
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Acetylcholine
Important for (3) Disorders (~2) |
Important for:
Memory Attention Muscle contraction (neuromuscular junction) **used by neurons of the parasympathetic NS *Especially plentiful in midbrain/striatum, where they occur in circuits that are important for movement Disorder: Alzheimer's disease: Sulci get larger--brain cells die Cells that use acetylcholine die first Beginning signs: attention/memory problems Effects of Sarin (nerve gas & insecticides) *Prevent acetylcholine from being broken down in the synapse by the enzyme *Sarin = nerve gas. Bioterrorism agent |
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Serotonin:
Important for (4) Disorders (4) Drugs |
Important for:
*Mood *Sleep *Aggression *Anxiety Disorders: Aggression Poor impulse control (compulsive gamblers) Depression Suicide Drugs: Agonist, SSRIs, ecstasy Antidepressants prevent the reuptake of serotonin, so you end up with more of it in the synapse |
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Norepinephrine
Important for: (~3) Disorders (3) Drugs |
Important for:
*Mood (melancholic, helpless depression rather than aggressive) *Arousal/alertness *Sympathetic NS *Fight or flight NT *Helps activate your heart, all of the viscera in response to a threat Disorders: Depression Hypotension (low blood pressure) Migraines Drugs: Antagonist: Beta blockers Used for hypertension, reducing blood pressure Sometimes used by performers to reduce anxiety Prevent you from panicking |
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Dopamine
Important for (2) Disorders (3) Drugs: |
Important for:
*Movement (initiation & termination) *Reward (dopamine reward pathway) Cocaine, cake...dopamine is released to make you happy Temporary rush *used in the substantia nigra & striatum, which are important for movement Disorders: *Parkinson's: neurons that use dopamine die *Schizophrenia *Drug Abuse Drugs: Agonist: cocaine (blocks reuptake of dopamine) |
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2 types of amino acid transmitters
*excitatory or inhibitory? *describe |
Glutamate: excitatory
*most abundant NT *Important for learning & memory *Helps strengthen synaptic connections between neurons *Its synapses are especially plentiful in the cerebral cortex & the hippocampus *Overactivity of glutamate synapses can cause neurons to die *It can "excite neurons to death" GABA--inhibitory *dysfunctions lead to anxiety, epilepsy (when you don't have enough) *People like to increase GABA. Alcohol enhances GABA *W/o it there is too much going on *NT released by neurons, binds to inhibitory receptors |
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Neural plasticity
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Ability of neural components to change in response to the EV
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Locus coeruleus
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Small nucleus in the reticular formation that is involved in directing attention
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Striatum
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Structure in the forebrain involved with the smooth initiation of movement
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limbic system
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a set of brain structures that play important roles in regulating emotion & memory
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lateralized
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referring to the tendency for one cerebral hemisphere to excel at a particular function or skill compared with the other hemisphere
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association cortex
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those parts of the cerebral cortex that receive information from more than one sense or that combine sensory & motor information to perform complex cognitive tasks
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Reticular formation
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a network of cells & fibers threaded thorughout the hindbrain & midbrain that alters the activity of the rest of the brain
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Suprachiasmatic nuclei
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Nuclei in the hypothalamus that generate biological rhythyms
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Activity of the reticular formation also leads to activity in a small nucleus within it called the _______.
Describe it |
Locus coeruleus "blue spot"
Relatively few cells in it but they're very connected: each sends out an axon that branches extensively Involved in directing attention Abnormalities in humans linked to depression, ADHD, sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder |
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May also be the storehouse for well-rehearsed movements (i.e., dancing)
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Cerebellum
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Midbrain
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Small structure between the hindbrain & the forebrain that relays information from the eyes, ears, & skin that controls certain types of automatic behaviors
Certain types of automatic behaviors that integrate simple movements with sensory input that are controlled there |
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Brainstem
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midbrain & parts of the hindbrain other than the cerebellum
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Gyri
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Ridges
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Sulci
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Valleys
Fissures |
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Information from the skin about touch/pain/temperature goes to the ________ in the __________ lobe.
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Somatosensory cortex
Made up of cells in the parietal lobe |
