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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Genes |
Def: Basic unit of heredity Func: Guiding the process of making proteins <= make up physical structures, regulate development through lifespan |
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DNA |
Def: a molecule formed in double-helix shape Contains 4 nucleotides: - Adenine - Cytosine - Guanine - Thymine Pairing rule: A - T, C - G |
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Genotype |
Genetic makeup of an entire organism |
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Phenotype |
Physical traits or behavioural characteristics that show genetic variation Ex: eye colors, facial features, personalities |
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Chromosome |
Structure in cellular nucleus that are lined with all of the genes an individual inherits Human has 23 pairs chromosomes |
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Behavioural genomics |
The study of DNA and the way in which specific genes are related to behaviours |
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Behavioural genetics |
The study of how genes and environment influence behaviours Involve in comparing ppl with different relatedness |
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Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins |
Monozygotic twins: single egg, genetically identical Dizygotic twins: 2 eggs fertilized by 2 sperms, share the womb, approx 50% genetics in common |
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Heritability |
a statistic (between 0 and 1) represent degree of genetic differences between individuals contribute to individual differences in a behaviour or trait found in population |
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Epigenetics |
Changes in gene expression that: - Occur as a result of experience - Do not alter genetic code |
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Diathesis-stress model |
Gene-environment interaction becomes apparent after an accumulation of events |
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Natural selection |
Favourable traits become increasingly common in a population, while traits that are unfavourable become less common |
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Evolution |
Change in frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations |
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Intrasexual selection |
Situation which same sex members compete to win opportunity to mate with opposite sex |
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Intersexual selection |
Situation which one sex members choose mating partner based on desirable traits. |
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Homo habilis => Homo erectus => Homo sapiens |
Homo habilis: brain 50% larger than ancestor. Start to use stone tools Homo erectus: brain approx 1/3 larger than homo habilis. Can stand straight. Use more sophisticated tools, use fire. Homo sapiens: brain slightly larger than homo erectus. Ability to think in abstract and communicate => knowledge => key for modern human society |
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Neurons |
Major type of cells in nervous system. Responsible for sending and receiving message throughout body Structures and functions vary considerably. Structure is related to functions of neurons |
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Sensory vs. motor neurons |
Sensory neurons: Receive info from body senses and bring it to brain. Responsible for touch or pain sensation Motor neurons: Carry messages from brain to muscles to control muscles' flexion and extension |
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Soma (neuron cell body) |
Contain nucleus that houses cell's genetic material |
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Dendrites |
Small branches radiating from soma Receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages to the rest of cell |
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Axon |
Tail-like structure protruding from soma. Transports info in form of electrochemical reactions from soma to end of neuron |
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Axon terminal |
Bulb-like extension at end of axon, filled with vesicles |
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Neurotransmitters |
Chemical messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other |
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Glial cells |
Specialized cell in nervous system, involved in: - mounting immune responses in brain - removing waste - synchronize activity of neurons Out number neuron 10 to 1 |
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Glial cells: Myelin |
A type of glial cells Fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another => increasing speed (up to 150m/s) + efficiency of neural communication |
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Resting potential |
Relatively stable state when cell is not transmitting message Outside neuron: high concentration of + charge ions (sodium, potassium) Inside axon: low + charge ions, high concentration of - charge chloride ions Difference outside and inside => inside axon has - charge of -70mV |
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Action potential |
Wave of electrical activity originates at base of axon and travels down its length Neuron is stimulated => + ions flow into cell (ions move from high conc to low conc) Action potential is initiated at - 55mV => action potential occurs => raise - 70mV to + 35mV |
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Mechanism to return to resting potential |
Need to return to resting potential to fire again As soon as action potential occurs => ion channels slam shut => sodium ions inside cell being pumped out => cell becomes hyperpolarized, means cell is more negative than -70mV |
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Refractory period |
Brief period when neuron cannot fire Charge is more negative than - 70mV |
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1. Synapses 2. Presynaptic cells 3. Postsynaptic cells |
1. Microscopic space between neurons 2. Cells that release neurotransmitter into synapses 3. Cells with specialized receptors to hold neurotransmitter from synapses |
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All-or-none principle |
Individual nerve cells fire at same strength every time action potential occurs A stimulus is more intense than others because more cells are stimulated and each cell firing repeatedly |
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Excitatory vs. inhibitory |
Action of neurotransmitter causes the membrane to become: less negative (excite) / more negative (inhibit) |
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Reuptake |
Process where neurotransmitters that have been released into synapse are reabsorb into axon terminals of presynaptic neuron Prolonged stimulation makes it more difficult for cells to return to resting potential => necessary to fire again => necessary for neurotransmitters to be released back to synapses again |
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Neurotransmitter: Glutamate vs. GABA |
Glutamate: most common excitatory neurotransmitter in brain. Involve in new memory formation GABA: primary inhibitory neurotransmitter Prevent neurons from generating action potential Facilitate sleep, reduce arousal |
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Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine |
One of the most widespread neurotransmitter in body Found at junction between nerve cells and skeletal muscles => involve voluntary movement Also associated with attention and memory if released in brain |
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Neurotransmitter: Dopamine |
A monoamine neurotransmitter Involves in: mood, control voluntary movement, processing of rewarding experiences |
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Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine |
A monoamine that synthesized from dopamine molecules Involves in: regulating stress response, increasing arousal, attention, heart rate Often work with epinerphine (adrenaline) |
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Neurotransmitter: Serotonin |
A monoamine neurotransmitter Involves in regulating: sleep, mood, aggression, appetite |
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Agonist drugs |
Drugs that enhance or mimic effects of neurotransmitter's action Direct agonist: physically bind to receptors at postsynaptic cells Indirect agonist: facilitate effects of neurotransmitters, no binding to receptors |
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Antagonist drugs |
Drugs that inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of neurotransmitter Direct antagonist: blocking receptors Indirect antagonist: reduce influence of neurotransmitter but no blocking receptors |
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Hormones |
Chemicals secreted by the glands of endocrine system Usually secreted into blood stream to travel through body => slower effect than neurotransmitter |
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Hypothalamus |
A brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational system |
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Pituitary gland |
Master gland of endocrine system Produce hormones and send command about hormone production to other glands of endocrine system |
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Adrenal glands |
A pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to kidneys Release stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline) |
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Endorphin |
A hormone produced by pituitary gland and hypothalamus Reduce pain and induce feeling of pleasure |
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Central nervous system (CNS) vs. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
CNS: consist of brain and spinal cord PNS: division of nervous system that transmits signals between brain and rest of body. Divided into: somatic system, autonomic system |
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Peripheral nervous system: Somatic system |
Consist of nerves that control skeletal muscles => responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement Also consist of nerves that receive sensory inputs from body |
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Peripheral nervous system: Autonomic system |
Portion of PNS that responsible for regulating activity of organs and glands 2 sub-components: Sympathetic nervous system: Responsible for fight or flight response (ready for action responses: increase heart rate, dilated pupils,...) Parasympathetic nervous system: Maintain homeostatic balance in the presence of change. Work to return body to a baseline, nonemergency state |
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The hindbrain Brain stem |
Hindbrain: critical to control basic, life-sustaining processes Brain stem: on top op spinal cord => "stem" or bottom of brain 2 structures: medulla and pons Medulla: basic functions => heart rate, breathing, sneezing, ... Pons: level of wakefulness, dreams |
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The hindbrain Reticular formation |
Extend from medulla upward to midbrain Influence attention and alertness |
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The hindbrain Cerebellum |
Lobe-like structure at base of brain Monitoring movement, maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses Also involve in coordinating and timing ongoing movements |
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The midbrain |
Above the hindbrain Primarily functions as a relay station between sensory and motor areas Superior colliculus: visual attention Inferior colliculus: auditory attention |
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The forebrain |
Consist of all neural structures which are above midbrain. Including all folds and grooves on brain surface Have multiple interconnected structures which are critical for complex processes: emotion, memory, thinking, reasoning |
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The forebrain Ventricles |
Spaces inside forebrain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid => eliminating waste, bring nutrition, cushion brain from impact |
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The forebrain Basal ganglia |
Next to ventricles Group of 3 structures involved in: facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement info with brain's reward system |
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The forebrain Limbic system |
Integrated network involved in emotion and memory Amygdala: key structure in limbic system Facilitate memory formation of emotional events Mediate fear responses Play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expression Hippocampus: critical for learning and memory, particularly in formation of new memories Hypothalamus: see other card Thalamus: a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory info to different regions of brain |
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Cerebral cortex |
The convoluted, wrinkle outer layer of brain Involved in higher functions such as thought, language, personality |
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The four lobes Occipital lobe |
Located at rear of brain Process visual info Receive visual info from thalamus => processing => 2 visual pathways: - To temporal lobe: object recognition - To parietal lobe: using vision to guide movements |
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The four lobes Parietal lobe |
Involved in experiences of touch and bodily awareness Somatosensory cortex: a band at front edge of parietal lobe Densely packed nerve cells that register touch sensation |
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The four lobes Temporal lobe |
Located at the sides of brain near ears and involved in hearing, language, higher aspects of visual (object and face recognition) Auditory cortex: top part of temporal lobe, essential for hearing. Wernicke's area: slightly behind auditory cortex, related to understanding language |
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The four lobes Frontal lobe |
Important in many higher cognitive functions such as planning, regulating impulses and emotions, language production, and voluntary movements Also allow for guide and reflect own thought processes Primary motor cortex: thick band of neuron at rear of frontal lobe Involve in control voluntary movement and planning movement Prefrontal cortex: 2/3 of frontal lobe Perform many higher-order cognitive functions (decision making, controlling attention) |
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Corpus callosum |
Collection of neural fibres connecting 2 hemispheres Allow left and right hemispheres to communicate |
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Hemispheric specialization |
Phenomenon where 2 hemispheres often perform very different functions Right: cognitive tasks involves visual and spatial skills, recognition of visual stimuli, musical processing Left: language and math |
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Neuroplasticity |
Capacity of brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience |
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Lesioning |
Technique which researcher intentionally damage an area in brain |
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
Procedure which electromagnetic pulse is delivered to a targeted region of brain Used to create "temporary lesion", but weak pulse can also stimulate brain |
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Structural neuroimaging |
Type of brain scanning that produces images of different brain structures |
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Structural neuroimaging Computerized tomography (CT scan) |
X-ray are sent through brain by a rotating tube around head |
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Structural neuroimaging Magnetic resonating imaging (MRI) |
Clear images of brain are created based on how different neural regions absorb and release energy while in magnetic field |
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Structural neuroimaging Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) |
Measure white-matter pathways in brain Newest type of structural imaging |
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Functional neuroimaging |
Type of brain scanning that provides info about which brain areas are active when a person performs a particular behaviour |
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Functional neuroimaging Electroencephalogram (EEG) |
Measure pattern of brain activity using multiple electrodes attached to scalp no picture of brain |
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Functional neuroimaging Magnetoencephalogram (MEG) |
Measure tiny magnetic fields created by electrical activity of nerve cells in brain no picture of brain |
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Functional neuroimaging Positron emission tomography (PET) |
Low level of radioactive isotope is injected into blood, and its movement to regions of brain engaged in a particular task is measured |
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Functional neuroimaging fMRI |
Measure brain activity by detecting influx of oxygen-rich blood into neural area which was just active |
