Biological Psychology

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Neuroscience

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The scientific study of the nervous system.

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Biological Psychology

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Also called behavioral neuroscience, brain and behavior, and physiological psychology. The study of the biological bases of psychological processes and behavior.

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Dualism

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The notion, promoted by Rene Descartes, that the mind has an immaterial aspect that is distinct from the material body and brain.

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Phrenology

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The belief that bumps on the skull reflect enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral faculties.

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Localization of Function

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The concept that different brain regions specialize in specific behaviors.

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Ontogeny

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The process by which an individual changes in the course of its lifetime. That is, grows up and grows old.

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Neuron

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Also called nerve cell. The basic unit of the nervous system.

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Neural Plasticity or Neuroplasticity

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The ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment.

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Adult Neurogenesis

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The creation of new neurons in the brain of an adult.

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Social Neuroscience

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A field of study that uses the tools of neuroscience to discover the biological bases of social behavior, and the effects of social circumstances on brain activity.

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Evolutionary Psychology

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A field of study devoted to asking how natural selection has shaped behavior in humans and other animals.

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Epigenetics

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The study of factors that affect gene expression without making any changes in the nucleotide sequence of the genes themselves.

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Gene Expression

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The turning on or off of specific genes.

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Neuroeconomics

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The study of brain mechanisms at work during economic decision making.

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Conscioiusness

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The state of awareness of one's own existence, thoughts, emotions, and experiences.

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Somatic Intervention

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An approach to finding relations between body variables and behavioral variables that involves manipulating body structure or function and looking for resultant changes in behavior.

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Independent Variable

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The factor that is manipulated by an experimenter.

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Dependent Variable

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The factor that an experimenter measures to monitor a change in response to changes in an independent variable.

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Control Group

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A group of research subjects that are identical to an experimental (or test) group in every way except that they do not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation. The experimental group is then compared to the control group to assess the effect of the treatment.

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Within-Subjects Experiment

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An experiment in which the same set of subjects is compared before and after an experimental manipulation. The subjects thus serve as their own controls.

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Between-Subjects Experiment

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An experiment in which a group of experimental subjects is compared with a control group of individuals who have been treated identically in every way except that they haven't received the experimental manipulation.

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Behavioral Intervention

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An approach to finding relations between body variables and behavioral variables that involves intervening in the behavior of an organism and looking for resultant changes in body structure or function.

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Correlation

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The covariation of two measures.

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Negative Correlation

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A covariation of two measures in which one of the two usually goes up when the other goes down (and vice versa).

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Positive Correlation

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A covariation of two measures in which they both usually increase together, or always decrease together.

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Causality

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A relation of cause and effect, such that we can conclude that an experimental manipulation has specifically caused an observed result.

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Reductionism

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The scientific strategy of breaking a system down into increasingly smaller parts in order to understand it.

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Levels of Analysis

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The scope of experimental approaches. A scientist may try to understand behavior by monitoring molecules, nerve cells, brain regions, or social environments, or using some combination of these levels of analysis.

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Neuron or Nerve Cell

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The basic unit of the nervous system, each composed of the receptive extensions called dendrites, an integrating cell body, a conducting axon, and a transmitting axon terminal.

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Glial Cells

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Also called glia. Nonneuronal brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other types of support to the brain.

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Synapse

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The cellular location at which information is transmitted from a neuron to another cell.

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Input Zone

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The part of a neuron that receives information, from other neurons or from specialized sensory structures.

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Dendrite

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An extension of the cell body that receives information from other neurons.

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Integration Zone

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The part of a neuron that initiates nerve electrical activity.

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Cell Body or Soma

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The region of a neuron that is defined by the presence of a cell nucleus.

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Conduction Zone

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The part of a neuron over which the nerve's electrical signal may be actively propogated.

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Axon

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Also called nerve fiber. A single extension from the nerve cell that carries action potentials from the cell body toward the axon terminals.

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Output Zone

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The part of a neuron at which the cell sends information to another cell.

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Axon Terminal

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Also called synaptic bouton. The end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a synapse on a neuron or other target cell.

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Motoneuron

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Also called motor neuron. A neuron that transmits neural messages, to muscles (or glands).

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Sensory Neuron

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A nerve cell that is directly affected by changes in the environment, such as light, odor, or touch.

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Interneuron

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A nerve cell that is neither a sensory neuron nor a motoneuron; interneurons receive input from and send output to other neurons.

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Multipolar Neuron

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A nerve cell that has many dendrites and a single axon.

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Bipolar Neuron

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A nerve cell that has a single dendrite at one end and a single axon at the other end.

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Unipolar Neuron

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Also called monopolar neuron. A nerve cell with a single branch that leaves the cell body and then extends in 2 directions; one end is the input zone, and the other end is the output zone.

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Presynaptic

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Referring to the region of a synapse that releases neurotransmitter.

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Postsynaptic

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Referring to the region of a synapse that receives and responds to neurotransmitter.

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Presynaptic Membrane

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The specialized membrane on the axon terminal of a nerve cell that transmits information by releasing neurotransmitter.

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Postsynaptic Membrane

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The specialized membrane on the surface of a nerve cell that receives information by responding to neurotransmitter from a presynaptic neuron.

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Synaptic Cleft

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The space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons at a synapse.

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Synaptic Vesicle

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A small, spherical structure that contains molecules of neurotransmitter.

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Neurotransmitter

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Also called synaptic transmitter, chemical transmitted, or simply transmitter. The chemical released from the presynaptic axon terminal that serves as the basis of communication between neurons.

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Neurotransmitter Receptor

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Also called simply receptor. A protein that captures and reacts to molecules of a neurotransmitter or hormone.

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Neural Plasticity

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Also called neuroplasticity. The ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment.

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Axon Hillock

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The cone-shaped area on the cell body from which the axon originates.

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Innervate

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To provide neural input to.

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Axon Collateral

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A branch of an axon.

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Axonal Transport

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The transportation of materials from the neuronal cell body to distant regions in the dendrites and axons, and from the axon terminals back to the cell body.

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Oligodendrocyte

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A type of glial cell that forms myelin in the central nervous system (CNS).

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Schwann Cell

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A type of glial cell that forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

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Myelin

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The fatty insulation around an axon, formed by glial cells. This sheath improves the speed at which nerve impulses are conducted.

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Node of Ranvier

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A gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed.

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Multiple Sclerosis

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Literally, "many scars"; a disorder characterized by the widespread degeneration of myelin.

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Astrocyte

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A star-shaped glial cell with numerous processes (extensions) that run in all directions.

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Microglial Cells

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Also called microglia. Extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells.

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Edema

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The swelling of tissue, especially in the brain in response to injury.

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Gross Neuroanatomy

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Anatomical features of the nervous system that are apparent to the naked eye.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

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The portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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The portion of the nervous system that includes all the nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord.

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Nerve

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A collection of axons bundled together outside of the CNS.

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Motor Nerve

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A nerve that transmits information from the CNS to the muscles and glands.

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Sensory Nerve

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A nerve that conveys information from the body to the CNS.

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Cranial Nerve

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A nerve that is connected directly to the brain.

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Spinal Nerve

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Also called somatic nerve. A nerve that emerges from the spinal cord.

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

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The part of the PNS that supplies neural connections to glands and to smooth muscles of internal organs.

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Cervical

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Referring to the topmost 8 segments of the spinal cord, in the neck region.

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Thoracic

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Referring to the 12 spinal segments below the cervical (neck) portion of the spinal cord, corresponding to the chest.

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Lumbar

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Referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the upper part of the lower back.

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Sacral

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Referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the lower part of the lower back.

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Coccygeal

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Referring to the lowest spinal vertebra (the coccyx, AKA the tailbone).

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Sympathetic Nervous System

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The division of the ANS that arises from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. This division prepares the body for immediate action.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

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The division of the ANS that arises from both the cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord. This division helps the body to relax, recuperate, and prepare for future action.

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Cerebral Hemisphere

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One of the 2 halves, right or left, of the forebrain.

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Cerebral Cortex

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Sometimes called simply cortex. The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, which consists largeley of nerve cell bodies and their branches.

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Gyrus

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A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface.

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Sulcus

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A crevice or valley of a convoluted brain surface.

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Frontal Lobe

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The most anterior portion of the cerebral cortex.

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Parietal Lobe

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The large region of cortex lying between the frontal and occipital lobes in each cerebral hemisphere.

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Temporal Lobe

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The large lateral region of cortex in each cerebral hemisphere. It is continuous with the parietal lobe posteriorly and separated from the frontal lobe by the Sylvian fissure.

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Occipital Lobe

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A large region of cortex that covers much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere.

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Sylvian Fissure

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Also called lateral sulcus. A deep fissure that demarcates the temporal lobe.

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Central Sulcus

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A fissure that divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.

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Corpus Callosum

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The main band of axons that connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres.

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Postcentral Gyrus

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The strip of parietal cortex, jut behind the central sulcus, that receives somatosensory information from the entire body.

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Precentral Gyrus

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The strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial for motor control.

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Gray Matter

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Areas of the brain that are dominated by cell bodies and are devoid of myelin. Gray matter mostly receives and processes information.

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White Matter

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A lighter-colored layer of tissue, consisting mostly of myelin-sheathed axons, that lies underneath the gray matter of the cortex. White matter mostly transmits information.

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Neural Tube

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An embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

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Forebrain

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The frontal division of the neural tube, containing the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.

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Midbrain

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The middle division of the brain.

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Hindbrain

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The rear division of the brain, which, in the mature vertebrate, contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla.

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Telencephalon

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The anterior part of the fetal forebrain, which will become the cerebral hemispheres in the adult brain.

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Diencephalon

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The posterior part of the fetal forebrain, which will become the thalamus and hypothalamus in the adult brain.

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Brainstem

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The region of the brain that consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.

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Nucleus

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Here, a collection of neuronal cell bodies within the CNS. (i.e. the caudate nucleus)

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Tract

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A bundle of axons found within the CNS.

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Pyramidial Cell

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A type of large nerve cell that has a roughly pyramid-shaped cell body and is found in the cerebral cortex.

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Cortical Column

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One of the vertical columns that constitute the basic organization of the cerebral cortex.

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Basal Ganglia

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A group of forebrain nuclei, including the caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen, found deep within the cerebral hemispheres.

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Caudate Nucleus

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One of the basal ganglia; it has a long extension or tail.

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Putamen

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One of the basal ganglia.

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Globus Pallidus

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One of the basal ganglia.

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Limbic System

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A loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network.

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Amygdala

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A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe.

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Hippocampus

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A medial temporal lobe structure that is important for learning and memory.

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Fornix

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A fiber tract that extends from the hippocampus to the mammillary body.

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Cingulate Gyrus

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A strip of cortex, found in the frontal and parietal midline, that is part of the limbic system and is implicated in many cognitive functions.

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Olfactory Bulb

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An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and, through small openings in the skull, provides receptors for smell.

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Thalamus

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The brain regions that surround the 3rd ventricle.

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Hypothalamus

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Part of the diencephalon, lying ventral to the thalamus.

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Superior Colliculi

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Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that process visual information.

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Inferior Colliculi

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Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that process auditory information.

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Tectum

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The dorsal portion of the midbrain consisting of the inferior and superior colliculi.

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Substantia Nigra

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A brainstem structure that innervates the basal ganglia and is the source of all dopaminergic projections.

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Reticular Formation

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An extensive region of the brainstem (extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is involved in sleep and arousal.

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Cerebellum

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A structure located at the back of the brain, dorsal to the pons, that is involved in the central regulation of movement.

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Pons

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The portion of the brainstem that connects the midbrain to the medulla.

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Medulla

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The posterior part of the hindbrain, continuous with the spinal cord.

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Meninges

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The 3 protective membranes: dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid. They surround the brain and spinal cord.

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Dura Mater

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The outermost of the 3 meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord.

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Pia Mater

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The innermost of the 3 meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord.

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Arachnoid

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The thin covering (on of the 3 meninges) of the brain that lies between the dura mater and the pia mater.

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Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

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The fluid that fills the cerebral ventricles.

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Meningitis

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An acute inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

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Meningioma

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A noninvasive tumor of the meninges.

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Ventricular System

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A system of fluid-filled cavities inside the brain.

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Lateral Ventricle

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A complexly shaped lateral portion of the ventricular system within each hemisphere of the brain.

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Choroid Plexus

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A specialized membrane lining the ventricles that produces CSF by filtering blood.

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Third Ventricle

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The midline ventricle that conducts CSF from the lateral ventricles to the 4th ventricle.

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Fourth Ventricle

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The passageway within the pons that receives CSF from the 3rd ventricle and releases it to surround the brain and spinal cord.

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Stroke

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Damage to a region of brain tissue that results from blockage or rupture of vessels that supply blood to that region.

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Blood-Brain Barrier

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The mechanisms that make the movement of substances from blood vessels into brain cells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs, thus affording the brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in the blood.

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Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT)

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A noninvasive technique for examining brain structure through computer analysis of X-ray absorption at several positions around the head.

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

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A noninvasive technique for examining brain structure that uses magnetic energy to generate images that reveal some structural details in the living brain.

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Functional MRI (fMRI)

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Magnetic resonance imaging that detects changes in blood flow and therefore identifies regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task.

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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

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A technique for examining brain function that combines tomography with injections of radioactive substances used by the brain.

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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

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A noninvasive technique for examining brain function that applies strong magnetic fields to stimulate cortical neurons, in order to identify discrete areas of the brain that are particularly active during specific behaviors.

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Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

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A passive and noninvasive technique for examining brain function that measures the tiny magnetic fields produced by active neurons, in order to identify regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task.