Biological Basis Of Behavior

Front 1

Rene Descartes

Back 1

- Advocate for deductive reasoning.

- Believed in self-evident truths.

- Acknowledged that some of our behaviors were automatic responses to external stimuli.

-Tied all behaviors to the nervous system.

Front 2

What was the common belief before Descartes?

Back 2

That human behavior was entirely determined by conscious intent and free will.

Front 3

What two ideas did Descartes challenge?

Back 3

1. The notion of free will

2. The Church, because doctrine was based on free will.

Front 4

Cartesian dualism

Back 4

There are two aspects of human behavior:

1. Involuntary behaviors (reflexes) that occur in response to external stimuli.

2. Voluntary actions which occur because of a person's conscious choices and do not have to be triggered by external stimuli.

Front 5

Cartesian dualists

Back 5

Believe that there is a physical and nonphysical reality.

Front 6

How did Descartes believe that the nervous system was structured?

Back 6

- Nerves were tubes and fluid ("animal spirits") flowed through them in both directions.

- The brain is the reservoir of fluid.

- The pineal gland moves and opens portals to the brain and allowed fluids to flow back out; this is the location of "mind."

Front 7

What was Descartes' belief about reflexes?

Back 7

He believed that all animal behavior occurs as a reflex response to external stimuli and that animals lacked free will.

Front 8

Why did Descartes believe that humans were superior to animals?

Back 8

Humans have a mind and a soul (demonstrated by free will and voluntary behavior.

Front 9

The pineal gland according to Descartes

Back 9

The place where the physical body was connected to the mind.

Front 10

Introspection

Back 10

An intellectual tradition that followed Cartesian dualism wherein philosophers studied their own minds to figure out how how they worked.

Front 11

Nativism

Back 11

The belief that humans are born with some innate knowledge such as the concept of God, the concept of self, and certain fundamental axioms of geometry.

Front 12

John Locke

Back 12

Challenged Descartes by arguing for the tabla rasa ("clean slate")- the idea that all the ideas that people have are experienced after birth.

Front 13

Empiricism

Back 13

The philosophical approach to the question of what the mind contains.

Front 14

Thomas Hobbs

Back 14

Argued that the mind is just as lawful as reflexes and that the mind abides by the principle of hedonism.

Front 15

Hedonsim

Back 15

Voluntary behavior is governed by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain.

Front 16

Associations

Back 16

The two sets of rules accepted by empiricists, one primary and one secondary.

Front 17

Primary associations

Back 17

Contiguity, similarity, and contrast

Front 18

Secondary associations

Back 18

Intensity of sensation, frequency, and recency.

Front 19

Contiguity (2 types)

Back 19

1. Temporal: 2 things that appear close in time become associated.

2. Spatial: 2 things that appear close together become associated.

Front 20

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Back 20

Investigated the mechanisms of associations.

Front 21

Charles Bell and Francois Magendie

Back 21

Discovered that separate nerves are used to transmit sensory information form the sense organs to the central nervous system and motor information from the sensory nervous system to muscles.

Front 22

Afferent neurons

Back 22

Neurons that carry information into the central nervous system.

Front 23

Efferent neurons

Back 23

Neurons that carry information away from the central nervous system.

Front 24

Jan Swammerdam

Back 24

Demonstrated that mechanical irritation of a nerve is sufficient to produce a muscle contraction, therefore, the Cartesian fluid model is incorrect.

Front 25

Francis Glisson

Back 25

Used water displacement to demonstrate that Descartes' theory about muscle contractions swelling with water; contracting muscles with your arm displaces the same amount of water.

Front 26

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov

Back 26

- Proposed that in some cases the effect of a stimulus is not to elicit a reflex response directly but rather to release a response from inhibition.

- Argued that there are very weak stimuli that we are not aware of that produce all behaviors.

Front 27

Ivan Pavlov

Back 27

Demonstrated that not all reflexes are innate and that new ones can be established through association.

Front 28

What type of association does classical conditioning depend upon?

Back 28

Temporal contiguity

Front 29

Charles Darwin

Back 29

Proposed the process of evolution through natural selection, which he believed applied to humans as well as other organisms.

Front 30

The continuity of species

Back 30

A theory of Darwin and Wallace's that no species is fundamentally different from any other, but that some species are further along in the course of evolution than others.

Front 31

Wilhelm Wundt

Back 31

Wrote the first textbook of psychology.

Front 32

2 forms of scientific explanation

Back 32

1. Generalization

2. Reduction

Front 33

Generalization

Back 33

The explanation of particular instances of behavior as general laws from which experiments can be deduce; more common with psychologists.

Front 34

Reduction

Back 34

The explanation of particular instances of behavior in terms of simpler phenomenon; more common for physiologists.

Front 35

B.F.Skinner

Back 35

Developed the concept of operant conditioning, which relies on temporal contiguity.

Front 36

Divisions of the forebrain

Back 36

1. Telencephalon ("end brain")

2. Diencephalon ("interbrain")

Front 37

Other name for the midbrain

Back 37

Mesencephalon ("midbrain")

Front 38

Divisions of the hindbrain

Back 38

1. Metencephalon ("behind brain")

2. Myelencephalon ("marrow brain")

Front 39

Structures of the telencephalon

Back 39

1. Cerebral cortex (cerebrum)

2. Subcortical region

Front 40

Divisions of the cerebrum

Back 40

1. Frontal lobe

2. Parietal lobe

3. Temporal lobe

4. Occipital lobe

Front 41

Divisions of the subcortical region

Back 41

1. Limbic system

2. Basal ganglia

Front 42

Structures of the limbic system

Back 42

1. Hippocampus

2. Amygdala

Front 43

Divisions of the diencephalon

Back 43

1. Thalamus

2. Hypothalamus

Front 44

Structures within the thalamus

Back 44

1. Lateral geniculate nucleus

2. Medial geniculate nucleus

3. Ventrolateral nucleus

Front 45

Divisions of the mesencephalon

Back 45

1. Tectum

2. Tegmentum

Front 46

Structures of the tectum

Back 46

"roof;" dorsal portion of the mesencephalon.

1. Superior colliculi

2. Inferior colliculi

Front 47

Structures of the tegmentum

Back 47

1. Reticular formation

2. Periaqueductal gray matter

3. Red nucleus

4. Substantia nigra

Front 48

Structures of the metencephalon

Back 48

"covering;" portion of the mesencephalon beneath the tectum.

1. Cerebellum

2. Pons

Front 49

Structure in the myelencephalon

Back 49

Medulla oblongata

Front 50

neuraxis

Back 50

An imaginary line drawn through the spinal cord up to the front of the brain.

Front 51

anterior

Back 51

The front end

Front 52

posterior

Back 52

The tail end

Front 53

rostral

Back 53

Toward the beak

Front 54

caudal

Back 54

Toward the tail

Front 55

dorsal

Back 55

The top of the head and back.

Front 56

ventral

Back 56

The front or belly.

Front 57

superior

Back 57

Above (or dorsal to)

Front 58

inferior

Back 58

Below (or ventral to)

Front 59

lateral

Back 59

Toward the side

Front 60

medial

Back 60

Toward the midline

Front 61

ipsilateral

Back 61

On the same side of the body.

Front 62

contralateral

Back 62

On the opposite side of the body.

Front 63

Cutting transversely

Back 63

Gives you cross sections (or frontal sections)

Front 64

Cutting parallel to the ground

Back 64

Gives you horizontal sections.

Front 65

Cutting perpendicular to the ground (parallel to the neuraxis)

Back 65

Gives you sagittal sections.

Front 66

The vertebral arteries serve the __________ portion of the brain.

Back 66

caudal

Front 67

The internal carotid arteries serve the _______ portion of the brain.

Back 67

rostral

Front 68

The ___________ arteries serve the caudal portion of the brain.

Back 68

vertebral

Front 69

The ______________ arteries serve the rostral portion of the brain.

Back 69

internal carotid

Front 70

meninges

Back 70

The protective sheaths around the brain and spinal cord.

Front 71

What are the 3 layers of the meninges?

Back 71

1. Dura mater

2. Arachnoid membrane

3. Pia mater

Front 72

dura mater

Back 72

The thick, tough, and flexible outer layer of the meninges; "hard mother."

Front 73

arachnoid membrane

Back 73

The middle, web-like layer of the meninges.

Front 74

pia mater

Back 74

The layer of the meninges closely attached to the brain and spinal cord.

Front 75

subarachnoid space

Back 75

The gap between the pia mater and arachnoid membrane that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

Front 76

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Back 76

Fluid that surrounds the brain in the subarachnoid space that reduces shock of the CNS caused by sudden head movements.

Front 77

ventricles

Back 77

Hollow, interconnected chambers in the brain that are filled with CSF.

Front 78

lateral ventricle

Back 78

The largest ventricle in the brain, which is connected to the third ventricle.

Front 79

third ventricle

Back 79

Ventricle located at the midline of brain.

Front 80

massa intermedia

Back 80

A bridge of neural tissue that crosses through the middle of the third ventricle.

Front 81

cerebral aqueduct

Back 81

A long tube that connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.

Front 82

The CNS begins development early in embryonic life as a __________. At this point, the CNS contains three interconnected __________, known as the (1)___________, (2)___________, and

(3) _________.

Back 82

hollow tube; chambers

1. Forebrain

2. Midbrain

3. Hindbrain

Front 83

As the CNS continues development from the long tube, the rostral chambers divide into 3 separate chambers, which become the two _______ and the ___________.

Back 83

lateral ventricles; third ventricle.

Front 84

In CNS development, the region around the lateral ventricles becomes the _____________ and the region around the third ventricle becomes the ________________.

Back 84

telencephalon; diencephalon

Front 85

In the final stage of in utero CNS development, the chamber inside the mesencephalon becomes narrow, forming the ________ and two structures form in the hindbrain: (1)____________ and (2)________.

Back 85

cerebral aqueduct

1. metencephalon

2. myelencephalon

Front 86

The ___________ surrounds the rostral end of the neural tube in CNS development. Its 2 major components are the ____________ and the ___________.

Back 86

forebrain; telencephalon; diencephalon

Front 87

The convoluted cortex of the human brain consists of _______ (small grooves), __________ (large grooves), and ___________ (bulges between adjacent grooves).

Back 87

sulci; fissures; gyri

Front 88

central sulcus

Back 88

Divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.

Front 89

lateral fissure

Back 89

Divides the temporal love from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.

Front 90

neocortex

Back 90

The cerebral cortex that covers most of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres.

Front 91

commissure

Back 91

Cross-hemisphere connections in the brain.

Front 92

corpus callosum

Back 92

The largest commissure in the brain, which connects the left and right hemispheres.

Front 93

primary motor cortex

Back 93

Gyrus immediately rostral to the central sulcus that is responsible for motor control.

Front 94

What is the function of the frontal lobes?

Back 94

Planning, execution, and control of movements.

Front 95

What is the function of the posterior lobes of the brain?

Back 95

Perception

Front 96

primary somatosensory cortex

Back 96

Gyrus immediately caudal to the central sulcus that receives information about the body senses (touch, pressure, temperature, and pain).

Front 97

primary visual cortex

Back 97

Located at the back of the occipital lobes along the calcarine fissure and receives visual information.

Front 98

primary auditory cortex

Back 98

Lies in the temporal lobes, mostly hidden by the lateral fissure and receives auditory information.

Front 99

association cortex

Back 99

The rest of the neocortex that is not inclusive of the motor, visual, or auditory areas.

Front 100

limbic system

Back 100

A set of interconnected structures that is responsible for such functions as emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction.

Front 101

hippocampus

Back 101

- "Sea horse;" a limbic structure important to episodic memory, spatial navigation, rapid learning, and plasticity.

- Associated with depression.

Front 102

amygdala

Back 102

"almond;" a limbic structure that influences the peripheral nervous system based on rapidly processed input from the outside world.

Front 103

basal ganglia

Back 103

A collection of subcortical nuclei in the forebrain that are involved in muscle movement.

Front 104

thalamus

Back 104

Structure of the diencephalon that acts as a relay station between afferent neurons of the PNS and projections to the cortical surface.

Front 105

projection fibers

Back 105

Axons that arise from the cell bodies located in one region of the brain and synapse on neurons located in another region.

Front 106

nuclei

Back 106

Groups of neurons of similar shape.

Front 107

lateral geniculate nucleus

Back 107

Receives information from the eye and sends axons to the primary visual cortex.

Front 108

medial geniculate nucleus

Back 108

Receives information from the inner ear and sends axons to the primary auditory cortex.

Front 109

ventrolateral nucleus

Back 109

Receives information from the cerebellum and projects to the primary motor cortex.

Front 110

hypothalamus

Back 110

A structure that lies under the thalamus in the base of the brain and controls the autonomic nervous system and organizes behaviors related to survival of the species, the 4 F's: fighting, feeding, fleeing, and fornicating.

Front 111

Much of the ________ system is controlled by hormones produced by cells in the hypothalamus.

Back 111

endocrine

Front 112

anterior pituitary

Back 112

Interconnected with the hypothalamus by a small vascular system.

Front 113

The hypothalamus produces the hormones of the _________________ gland and controls their secretion.

Back 113

posterior pituitary

Front 114

inferior colliculi

Back 114

Part of the auditory system.

Front 115

superior colliculi

Back 115

Part of the visual system, primarily involved in visual reflexes and reactions to moving stimuli.

Front 116

reticular formation

Back 116

A large structure consisting of many nuclei (90+) that plays a role in sleep and arousal, attention, muscle tone, movement, and various vital reflexes.

Front 117

periaqueductal grey matter

Back 117

Contains neural circuits that control sequences of movements that constitute species-typical behaviors, such as fighting and mating.

Front 118

red nucleus

Back 118

Projects on of the two bundles of axons that bring motor information from the brain to the spinal cord.

Front 119

substantia nigra

Back 119

Contains dopamine-secreting neurons that project to the caudate nucleus; degeneration of this structure causes Parkinson's disease.

Front 120

caudate nucleus

Back 120

A component of the basal ganglia that plays important roles in motor function, procedural learning, associative learning, inhibitory control of action, and reward.

Front 121

cerebellum

Back 121

"Little brain;" receives visual, auditory, vestibular, and somatosensory information as well as information about individual muscular movements being directed by the brain.

Front 122

pons

Back 122

A large bulge in the brain stem that appears to be important to sleep and arousal.

Front 123

medulla oblongata

Back 123

- The most caudal portion of the brain stem that controls vital functions such as regulation of the cardiovascular system, respiration, and skeletal muscle tone.

- Somatosensory neurons come in here and motor neurons go out here.

Front 124

spinal cord

Back 124

A long, conical structure that distributes motor fibers to the effector organs of the body (glands and muscles) and to collect somatosensory information to the brain; possesses some autonomy from the brain in its use of reflexive control circuits.

Front 125

dorsal and ventral roots

Back 125

Bundles of fibers that emerge from the spinal cord in two straight lines and fuse together to become 31 paired sets.

Front 126

intervetebral foramen

Back 126

The location where dorsal and ventral roots join together and become spinal nerves.

Front 127

peripheral nervous system

Back 127

The part of the nervous system that is not encased in bone.

Front 128

2 parts of the peripheral nervous system

Back 128

1. Autonomic nervous system

2. Somatic nervous system

Front 129

2 parts of the autonomic nervous system

Back 129

1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system

Front 130

sympathetic nervous system

Back 130

Uses a lot of energy to prepare the organism to respond to environmental demands by fighting, fleeing, or freezing.

Front 131

parasympathetic

Back 131

Lets the nervous system recover after activation of the sympathetic nervous system.

Front 132

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems operate with _______________ inhibition.

Back 132

reciprocal

Front 133

autonomic nervous system

Back 133

Regulates glandular systems.

Front 134

somatic nervous system

Back 134

Regulates the muscles.

Front 135

In what 2 ways does the hypothalamus communicate with the pituitary gland?

Back 135

1. Direct neural pathways

2. Vascular pathways, stimulated by neural hormones.

Front 136

sexually dimorphic nucleus

Back 136

Structure of the hypothalamus that manages reproductive functions (sperm production/ovulation) and identifies the sex of the brain (larger in men).

Front 137

Neurons communicate through _______________.

Back 137

synapses

Front 138

__________ effects increase the likelihood that the neuron receiving them will send a message down the axon; ___________ effects decrease this likelihood.

Back 138

Excitatory, inhibitory

Front 139

The messages a neuron receives from the presynaptic neuron is ____________ while the messages that are conducted down the axon from the cell body to the terminal buttons is ___________.

Back 139

chemical, electrical

Front 140

resting potential

Back 140

The charge of the neuron at rest, which is about -70 mV on the inside of the cell relative to the outside.

Front 141

What 3 basic factors about a neuron cause it to have an electrical charge?

Back 141

1. The special semi-permeability of the membrane of the neuron.

2. The presence of ions that exist near the inside and outside surfaces of the membrane.

3. The operation of two principles of nature (diffusion pressure, electrostatic forces)that govern the way these ions move.

Front 142

What substances pass freely in and out of the neuron through the semi-permeable membrane without restriction?

Back 142

Water, nutrients, amino acids, and waste.

Front 143

protein anions

Back 143

Large molecules that carry a double negative charge that are restricted to the interior of the neuron due to their size.

Front 144

Potassium (K+) ions are more concentrated on the ________ of the cell, while sodium (NA+) and chloride ions (CL-) are concentrated on the ___________ of the cell.

Back 144

inside, outside

Front 145

diffusion pressure

Back 145

The tendency for identical particles in solution to move apart from one another so that they fill all the available space with the greatest possible distance between each other.

Front 146

electrostatic repulsion

Back 146

The tendency for particles with identical charges to repel one another.

Front 147

_____________ pushes the chloride ions inward, but _____________ pushes most of the chloride ions out of the cell. This leaves the inside of the axon with slightly more ____________ ions than there are on the outside.

Back 147

Diffusion pressure, electrostatic repulsion, negative

Front 148

electrostatic attraction

Back 148

The tendency for unlike charges to attract one another.

Front 149

________________ pulls a few potassium ions inward, but not enough to cancel the negativity there. The rest are held back by the strong __________ from the inside potassium ions.

Back 149

Electrostatic attraction, diffusion pressure

Front 150

sodium-potassium pump

Back 150

Works continually to move sodium ions to the outside and potassium ions to the inside.

Front 151

depolarization

Back 151

The charge of the inside of the cell becomes less negative.

Front 152

hyperpolarization

Back 152

The charge of the inside of the cell becomes more negative.

Front 153

threshold

Back 153

Depolarization to at least -60 mV occurs and an action potential is triggered.

Front 154

action potential

Back 154

A brief change of potential in the neuron to +40mV.

Front 155

axon hillock

Back 155

The point of initiation for the action potential at the beginning of the axon.

Front 156

nodes of Ranvier

Back 156

The non-insulated points on a myelinated axon where depolarizations occur during a nerve impulse.

Front 157

saltatory conduction

Back 157

The mechanism for conduction in myelinated axons; meaning "to jump."

Front 158

Depolarization to about -60mV causes the membrane to shut off the _______________ and temporarily become selectively permeable to __________ ions.

Back 158

sodium-potassium pump, sodium

Front 159

Selective permeability for sodium during an action potential lasts for about ___________.

Back 159

1 msec

Front 160

all-or-none law

Back 160

The constancy in the strength of each action potential.

Front 161

refractory period

Back 161

A brief period of time during which the neuron is resistant to a re-triggering of an action potential, which limits how frequently a neuron can fire.

Front 162

absolute refractory period

Back 162

A period of about 1 msec when an action potential would not be possible under any circumstances.

Front 163

relative refractory period

Back 163

A period following an action potential in which a stimulus would have to be stronger than usual in order to produce another action potential.

Front 164

The upper limit for the frequency of action potentials would be __________ per second under the most optimal conditions.

Back 164

1,000

Front 165

If you sever a neuron in the PNS:

Back 165

- It will sprout new tentacles in all directions.

- It will grow bigger if the cut hits a Schwann cell.

- Function will return.

Front 166

If you sever a neuron in the CNS:

Back 166

- The neurons sprout tentacles in all directions.

- The tentacles hit the glial cells and become scar tissue.

- Function does not return.

Front 167

What are the 3 types of neurons?

Back 167

1. Motor neuron

2. Sensory neuron

3. Interneuron

Front 168

motor neuron

Back 168

Efferent neurons that carry information away from the CNS.

Front 169

sensory neuron

Back 169

Afferent neurons that carry information into the CNS.

Front 170

Dendrites of sensory neurons receive input from what 4 places?

Back 170

1. muscle cells

2. gland cells

3. the environment

4. other neurons

Front 171

Sensory neurons tend to synapse onto ______________, often in the spinal cord.

Back 171

interneurons

Front 172

interneurons

Back 172

Neurons that tend to sit between other neurons.

Front 173

simple reflex arc

Back 173

Requires a minimum of 3 neurons (sensory + interneuron + motor).

Front 174

The Principle of One-Way Conduction

Back 174

Signals only travel in one direction.

Front 175

Neurons are either ____________ or ____________ and they do not switch types.

Back 175

excitatory, inhibitory

Front 176

cytoskeleton

Back 176

In the animal cell, supports the organelles and cell shape and plays a role in cell motion.

Front 177

microtuble

Back 177

In the animal cell, a tube of protein molecules that allow the transport of enzymes throughout the cell; part of the cytoskeleton.

Front 178

intermediate filament

Back 178

In the animal cell, intertwined protein fibers that provide support and strength and allow the transport of enzymes throughout the cell; part of the cytoskeleton.

Front 179

actin filament

Back 179

In the animal cell, twisted protein fibers that are responsible for cell movement; part of the cytoskeleton.

Front 180

centriole

Back 180

In the animal cell, complex assembly of microtubles that occurs in pairs.

Front 181

cytoplasm

Back 181

In the animal cell, semi-fluid matrix that contains the nucleus and other organelles.

Front 182

mitochondrion

Back 182

In the animal cell, organelle that acts that the power plant and breaks down molecules to create energy.

Front 183

secretory vesicle

Back 183

In the animal cell, vesicle fusing with the plasma membrane, releasing materials to be secreted from the cell.

Front 184

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Back 184

In the animal cell, system of internal membranes that aids in the manufacture of carbohydrates and lipids to be excreted outside the cell.

Front 185

rough endoplasmic reticulum

Back 185

In the animal cell, internal membranes studded with ribosomes that carry out protein synthesis, which makes substance that will be used within the cell.

Front 186

nucleus

Back 186

In an animal cell, the command center of the cell.

Front 187

nucleolus

Back 187

In the nucleus of an animal cell, the site where ribosomes are produced.

Front 188

nuclear envelope

Back 188

In the nucleus of an animal cell, the double membrane between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Front 189

nuclear pore

Back 189

In the nucleus of the animal cell, the opening embedded with proteins that regulates passage into and out of the nucleus.

Front 190

ribosomes

Back 190

In the animal cell, small complexes of RNA and protein that are the sites of protein synthesis.

Front 191

peroxisomes

Back 191

In the animal cell, vesicles that contain enzymes that carry out particular reactions, such as detoxifying potentially harmful molecules.

Front 192

lysosomes

Back 192

In the animal cell, vesicles that break down macromolecules and digests worn out cell components.

Front 193

Golgi complex (apparatus)

Back 193

In the animal cell, organelle that collects, packages, and distributes molecules manufactured in the cell.

Front 194

plasma membrane

Back 194

In the animal cell, phospholipid bilayer in which proteins are embedded.