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239 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Neurons
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information processing units
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Glial cells
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support and maintenance of the CNS
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Types of glial cells
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astrocytes
schwann cells oligodendrocytes ependymal cells microglia |
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Meninges
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surround, defend, and maintain tissue
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Astrocytes
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connects a blood source to a neuron for inport of nutrients and export of waste.
if the astrocytes shuts off the connection, the synapse collapses and that connection dies. |
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Cerebral spinal flud
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buffered plasma; shock absorber and flushing device.
produced by the choroid plexus in the ventricles. |
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Schwann cells
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PNS
one shwann cell per neuron myelinates |
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Grey matter
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neuron bodies in the cortex and spine.
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Oligodendrocyte
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CNS
many oligo's per neuron myelination |
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White matter
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myelin insulation of neuron processes. Fibrous processes running through the center of the brain connecting various parts.
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Microglia
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SOLDIERS
swarm to an area, engulf it, try to contain it so that it can be moved out of the system. can isolate and exportbut can't kill something. crawl through the brain towards a chemical scent. |
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Myelin development
1-2 years |
the first spurt is under the MOTOR CORTEX
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Ependymal
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form linings around things
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Myelin development
3-5 years |
the second is PARIETAL AND TEMPORAL LOBES
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Myelin development
5-9 years |
the third is diffuse, just the mass increases
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Myelin development
10+ years |
the fourth links the TEMPORAL with the FRONTAL
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Myelin development
21 years of age |
FRONTAL LOBE spurt and is associated with question seeking/heuristic thought processes.
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Hindbrain
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spine and medulla and cerebellum
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Midbrain
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thalamus, hypothalamus, and some limbic and basal ganglial structures
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Forebrain
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anteiror limbic system, basal ganglial, and cortical areas.
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Positive feedback
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one process stimulates another, this other stimulates another process that, in turn, stimulates the first.
this can set up a state of increasing tension or excitation that serves some limited, well controlled and regulated processes. NORMALLY THIS MEANS DEATH |
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Negative feedback
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activity in one system stmiulates activity in another that inhibits activity in the first.
All things biological rely on negative feedback to maintain function within homeostatic limits. |
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Functions of the CNS
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maintaining homeostasis via feedback, equilibrium, sensing, and effecting.
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Brainstem nuclei
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source of many cranial nerves; neurotransmitter synthesis, motor reflex modulation.
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Structures that make up the BRAINSTEM
and function of BRAINSTEM |
medulla oblongata
pons cerebellum tegmentum tectum monitors automatic body functions; source of most neurotransmitters; route of motor output and sensory input; implementer of sleep/wake cycle; adjuster of state of arousal; reticular activating system. |
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Medulla
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set of automatic, reflexive functions required for life.
damage here usually kills, or produces decerebrate rigidity |
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cerebellum
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fine motor and postural motor control/modulation,
balance integration of several senses into motor control. |
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Pons
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arousal and attention
connects left and right cerebellar lobes; more cranial nerves. damage here causes decorticate rigidity. |
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tegmentum
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arousal,
motor pathways, circadian rhythms |
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tectum
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sensory reflexes and initial processing,
circadian data processing |
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structures of the MIDBRAIN
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thalamus
hypothalamus basal ganglia limbic system |
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thalamus
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sensory relays and direction
initial information processing all sensory input passes through this first before it gets relayed anywhere else smell is the only sensory system that doesn't go through the thalamus; it goes through the limbic system |
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hypothalamus
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ANS controllife function regulation
metabolism endocrine control control center of autonomic nervous system, seat of potentially first experience of hunger, thirst, fear. considered the seat of primary motivators (hunger, thirst, sex, fear) |
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basal ganglia
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fine motor control
muscle tone and preparedness anticipation some forms of learning contributes to emotion preparedness, reaction, and response |
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limbic system
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just beneath the cortex and surrounds the basal ganglia
memory emotionality sense of smell (smell is the only sense that doesn't pass through the thalamus first; it goes directly to the limbic system) |
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structures of the FOREBRAIN
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cortex
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cortex
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the outermost layer of the brain (GREY MATTER)
higher informaiton processing perception awareness learning motor control memory self concept planning personality |
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Bio-Psycho-Social model
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biological beings that think and feel in a social context
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Nerves
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bundles of axons in the PNS
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Tracts
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bundles of axons in the CNS
ascending to descending |
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Fasciculi
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anterior-posterior tracts
front to back |
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commissures
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large left-right tracts
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internal capsule
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subcortical white matter
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Anterior
Rostral |
toward the front
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Posterior
Caudal |
toward the rear
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Lateral
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toward the side
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Medial
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toward the midline
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Sagittal
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the plane of the midline
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Horizontal
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the plane from teh top
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Frontal
Coronal |
the plane from the face
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Dendries
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gather information
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Soma
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cell body
sums info up and processes it |
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axon
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information transmitting process extending to other neurons
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nodes of ranvier
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the only place where actual potentials occur.
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bouton
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learning occurs (processing of neurontransmitter)
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concentration gradient
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low concentration on one side and a high contration on the other. this creates a potential.
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electrostatic gradient
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outside is positively charged, inside is negatively charged
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Na+
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outside to inside
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K+
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inside to outside; but it has a positive pull to stay inside the negative charge so it doesn't readily go out just because of the conc gradient.
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Cl-
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greater outside than inside
pressure from concentration gradient to enter cell counterbalanced by pressure from electrostatic gradient to leave the cell. |
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dendrytic potential
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graded, non propogating (stay in dendrite)
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axonal potential
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all or nothing, self propogating
AXONAL = ACTION |
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when does the axon fire?
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when stimulation reaches the excitation threshold via voltage-gated channels.
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excititory potential
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moving toward threshold
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what changes about an axon
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size and speed of axonal potential is constant, only the FREQUENCY changes
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inhibitory potential
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moving away from threshold
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ephapsis
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cell walls fuse together.
no delay, direction communication, this is for processing info super fast. once they connect, they stay that way until the cells die. |
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temporal summation
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a number of stimuli are received within a few ms
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spatial summation
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a number of stimuli are received at teh same time within a small section of the neuron.
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relative refractory period
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a few ms later the neuron has recovered sufficiently that it can be fired again but only at supernormal levels of stimulation
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absolute refractory period
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no matter how much stimulation, the axon will not fire again
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speed of stimulus intensity
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speed of stimulus intensity is encoded and determined by frequency of potentials not by change in potential size
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neural conduction
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electrical - ionic
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synaptic activity
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electrical - chemical
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autoreceptors
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detect nt's and reduce their release. they make the presynaptic membrance less sensitive to calcium which stops vesicle fusion and rupture into the cleft.
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luria's functional units of brain organization
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reflect systems of brain structures that underlie all forms of behavior, thought, and affect.
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1st functional unit
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AROUSAL
the sleep/waking processes and the processes determining level of arousal and attention |
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2nd functional unit
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INPUT AND MEMORY
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3rd functional unit
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OUTPUT AND ACTION
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facts about sleep
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an active process of shutting down
not a uniform or consistent process |
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stage 1 of sleep
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initial stage of sleep
from the time you decide to fall asleep to complete disconnection of sensory awareness. represents hte brains decision to progress to deeper sleep. |
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stage 2 of sleep
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represents the brains effort to establish and maintain sleep.
no mental activity, or incomplete, disjointed mentations |
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stage 3 of sleep
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beginning of deep, slow wave sleep
no or minimal mental activity physically restorative sleep |
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stage 4 of sleep
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deep, slow wave sleep.
no mental activity physically restorative sleep |
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REM
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about 90 mins after sleep onset
complex, organized, emotionally laden mentations biological necessity (REM rebound phenomena) associated with memory processes the prefrontal cortex is off during this state. somatic musculature is turned off or actively inhibited so that dream experiences can't be acted on during sleep |
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REM rebound
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occurs in the form of a mini withdrawal
usually associated with nightmares and restlessness. |
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Insomnias
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onset, maintaince, early morning waking
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Apneas
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obstructive: something is in the way
central: stop trying to breathe, no respiratory effort (neurological) mixed cheyne-stokes |
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Barbitols and Phenobarbs
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desensitizes the post synaptic membrane to ACH
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Initial dose
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can increase NEPI producing peripheral vasoconstriction/hypertension. this also contributes to disinhibition and a rush of euphoria.
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large dose
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slow cardiac and respiratory functions, produce peripheral vasodilation and lower blood pressure
produce euphoria and confusion. produce sleep hangover |
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centrally
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induce slow wave sleep and block REM.
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Anesthesia
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fast acting, short half lifers
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small doses
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activation from frontal leads; cloudoing of consciousness and euphoria
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higher doses
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EEG slowing, sleep is induced, but pain responses are still present
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dangerous doses
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EEG flattening, coma, no pain response is present, respiration may stop, death can occur.
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homeostasis
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keeping body functions and resources within a specific set of time
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exteroceptors
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eyes, ears, nose, etc
give first units of cognitive structure when combined with motor effect |
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interoceptors
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organs, glands, muscles
gives most basic element of experience of self (what's going on with me, how do i feel) |
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need
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specific deficit or imbalance
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drive
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the experience or sensation of a need, usually uncomfortable, act as motivators of action to reduce the state
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motive
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the goal to relieve the drive or fulfill the need
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satiation
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the experience of achievement of the motive, usually pleasant or comfortable
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immediate biological drives
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breathing, blood flow, thermoregulation, elimination, basic system integrity/function (pain, nausea, distress)
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reflexive
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automatic
lower brain structures medullary |
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medullary
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automatic, essential life forces not really motivators per se but can be a source of panic
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ANS
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largely independent and autonomous, and based on medullary processes and local (peripheral) controls/mechanisms/feedback.
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basic motivators (less immediate biological need states)
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need for food, water, procreative, and survival
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2 components of ANS
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parasymp NS
symp NS |
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parasympathetic NS
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designed to store energy, heal injury, grow, reproduce
trophotopic: energy conserving low energy output-digestive functions, specific, individualized system. designed for sustained, restorative processes and energy retention/replenishment. default system, active essential whenever the symp is not needed |
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sympathetic NS
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designed to fight, flee, survive, expend energy
ergotropic: energy expending high energy expenditure designed for brief, diffuse reaction to all oeprating systems designed to enable peak performance; short bursts of activity at maximal levels to ensure survival |
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general adaptation syndrome
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hans seyle
alarm, adaptation, exhaustion appears to reflect experience, perception, and general state of fitness of organ systems (wear and tear) |
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multiple nuclei
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each specialized in some form of homeostatic process.
when stimulated, create sensation of drive state. when lesioned, often reduce, alter, or eliminate the drive state. |
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lateral hypothalamic nuclei (LH)
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triggers consumatory behavior when blood sugar, protein, and fat are really low.
leasons to this nucleus cause teh organism to stop eating completely, no matter how long it's been or what you put in front of them. |
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ventral medial hypothalamus
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satiety center; when sugar, protein, and fat have gone up, this tells you when you've had enough
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anterior and preoptic nuclei
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drinking, water, temperature regulation, sex
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anterior pituitary
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production of 7 important hormones
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somatotropic
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growth hormone, affects protein and lipid, carbohydrate, and calcium metabolism
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ACTH
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regulates activity of the adrenal glands
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thyrotropin
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regulates thyroxin secretion by the thryoid
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hyperthyroidism
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too much
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myxedema
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too little
behavioral slowing, depression like symptoms, faulty development of skin, teeth and cartilage, puffy, dry skin, cardiac anomalies, and menstrual irregularities |
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prolactin
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promotes growth of breast tissue and maintains lactation
secretion of progesterone |
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FSH and LH
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regulate ovary and testicle development
estrogen secretion in women spermatogenesis in men |
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MSH
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regulation of pigmenting cells in the skin
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Posterior pituitary
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produces 2 hormones
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Oxytocin
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stimulates uterine contractions in pregnancy, reduces bleeding, and releases milk into ducts.
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vasopressin
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helps constrict smaller arteries to increase blood pressure, reduces water loss through kidneys, and stimulates digestive smooth muscle
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thorasal lambar
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sympathetic exit
all organs get the message at once |
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cranial sacral
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parasympathetic exit
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cingulate gyrus
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limbix cortex
realization of emotional experience associated with numerous aspects of self involved in both input and output of data |
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luria's 2nd functional unit
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acquisition, processing, and storing of information
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perception
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learned through experience with sensations and teh consequences of these sensations (motor activity)
perceptions guide volitional action and further cognitive development they then modify attention and the detection of new sensations |
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2 way street of information processing
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1. perceptions guide action and further cognitive development. perceptions then modify attention and the detection of new sensations
2. new sensations can challenge the existing cognition. |
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transduction
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the conversion of physical energy into another form of energy
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sensation
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the transduction of physical energy into neurochemical impulse, the conduction of that impulse to the brain, and the registratio nof the impulse on the thalamus and cortex
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perception
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the interpretation of sensations
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threshold
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the intensity at which a stimulus can be detect 50% of the time
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receptor cell
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the cell responsible for trasnduction of physical energy
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unipolar cell
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a typical receptor cell
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types of unipolar cells
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rods and cones
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rods
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scotopic or protopathic
low threshold, low resolution for night vision, don't require much light, not good for detail (vague) |
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cones
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photopic or epicrtic
high threshold, high resolution require a lot of light, good for high detail |
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bipolar cell
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the first level integration of a number of receptor cells output
send action potential |
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ganglial cell
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interpretation of sitmuli
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errors in perception
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erros begin at the level of transduction, but the learning process and context often change perception at highest levels
misinterpretation of sensation: illusion |
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amacrine cells
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compensate for retinal blurring
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horizontal cells
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inhibitors of receptors
their inhibition spreads out in concentric fields and affects all receptors in the field whether they have direct stimulation or not. the degree of inhibition is proportional to the degree of stimulation |
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high convergence
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lower acuity
high sensitivity several hundred rods to just 1 bipolar cell |
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low convergance
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high acuity
low sensitivity just one cone to one bipolar cell |
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lateral inhibition
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principle of error compensation in many sensory systems
enhances contrast at edges for retinal receptors receptors at the edge of stimulation receive less inhibition than stimulated neighbors. receptors at edge of non-stimulation receive some inhibition from stimulated neighbors. the effect is a perceived enhanced contrast |
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primary visual cortex
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registers visual information and passes it on
damage here means blindness |
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secondary visual cortex
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passes perception on to tertiary cortex
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tertiary visual cortex
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integrates the information and conceptualizes it
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primary cortex
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detects and registers information
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secondary cortex
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perceives information
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tertiary cortex
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integrtes multi-modal information
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suprachiastmatic nucleus
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circadian rhythms
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pineal gland
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circadian rhythms, sensitive to light
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superior colliculus
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visual orientation and acctivation of supporting nuclei for ccomodation, focus, convergence, and eye movements
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perceptual constancies
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color, size, shape
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afterimages
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retinal fatigue and central processing
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ambiguous figure
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need of perceptual system to organize information
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impossible figures
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pressure to comperhend or make sense of world even when sense is not achievable
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Uncus
aka medial, anterior temporal cortex |
the experience of smell
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dorsal colum
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carries information about touch and joint position.
this tract ascends ipsilaterally, crossing only at the level of the brain stem. damage here will imapir sensation on the same side of the body |
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anterolateral system
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crosses almost immediately and ascends contralaterally to the source of sensation into the thalamus and on to the cortex.
produces changes in sensation on the opposite side of the body |
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topographic/tonographic organization on the basiliar membrance and the cortex
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the highest frequencies produce maximal vibratio non the area closest to the oval window, and lower frequencies further away. the lowest frequencies activate the entire membrane.
low frequencies: activates everything high frequencies: activates only some parts higher up |
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tonotopica organization
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low frequencies: medial and posterior areas
high frequencies: anterior and lateral areas |
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large component of meaning/experience
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valence (value) and feelings
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factors in determining appraisal of situation
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genetics
immediate context prevous experience with the situation and recall of outcome of involvement |
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neural system of emotionality: cortical-limbic system
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cortex: accesses current perception
memory: past history autonomic: body states/reactions |
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TLH axis
temporal-limibic-hypothalamic |
base of emotionality
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affect
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subjective and not observable by others
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emotion
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a personally relevant reaction to some specific object, situation, or perception that prepares a person to act in a specific way.
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mood
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predisposition to respond based on genetics, experience, perception, intellect, context, etc
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reaction
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immediate, cognitive and autonomic activity associated with a provocative situation
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response
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distinct somatic and autonomic signs.
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allusions to emotions
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references to what the viscera are doing: broken heart, butterflies in the stomach
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blood : sanguine
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mood outgoing, tolerant, affiliative
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yellow bile : choleric
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mood controlling, tense, organized
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black bile : melancholic
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mood ruminative, cautious, negativistic
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mucous : phlegmatic
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mood easy going, unruffable, unpredictable
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James and Lange
Visceral theory |
emotions were an afterward reaction to a situation by the gut. gut reactions then produce the emotion.
GUT FIRST, EMOTIONS SECOND example: i am afraid because i'm running; i'm lonely because my chest hurts |
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Cannon and Bard
Thalamic theory |
our perception of a situation at the thalamic level activates the gut.
feedback from the gut conveys the strength of the reaction example: i am afraid, therefore i run |
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Papez and Maclean
Identified the limbic system |
a system that is capable of integrating current perception with past experiences, and with the rapid effect on and feedback from the viscera.
connects the cortex to the hypothalamus |
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amygdala
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territory, aggression, predation
recognizes the importance, novelty, potential threat, and/or emotional impact of the inew information and helps determine which memories are saved |
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septal nuclei
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passivity, retreat, submit
activation suggests the new information has been recognized and is familiar. no activation suggests the stimulus is novel and needs to be explored more. |
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hippocampus
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connects the amygdala and the septal nucleus
where memories appear to be assigned to the appropriate cortex for teh information consolidation. interacts with the medial temporal cortex and constantly with the prefrontal cortex to make sense of information or to work with the information to make it as meaningful as possible. |
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Zajonc
Facial reafference |
contributes to the initial acquisition of emotoins and the later manifestations of subjective experience
example: kids falling down, look at parents reactions |
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Pribram
emotions |
emotional reactions vs emotional responses
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emotional reactions
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inevitable and uncontrollable, just another form of information processing
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emotional responses
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a matter of experience and choice, just another form of problem solving
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Pribam
2 brain systems involved in emotional experience |
anterior/medial
lateral/posterior |
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Schachter and Singer
context and perception |
emotional reactions of subjects consistent with context and perception.
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anterior/medial
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pleasure, hedonism, serotonin and dopamine-based
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orienting response
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a sudden departure from the expected = dissonance
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lateral/posterior
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aversive, recognize discomfort
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emotions reflect perturbation
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the emotion is information directing us toward satisfactory resolution of drive, thus emotions are a form of sensation-carrying information
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medial limbic/hypothalamic/pituitary axis
MLHP axis |
recognizes novelty, habituates, and recalls.
involved in reachieving homeostasis EXCITATORY, EXPLORATORY, UNSTABLE, SENSITIZING DEVIATE FROM BASELINE, CHANGE |
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lateralized systems (basal ganglia nd lateral limbic)
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arousal and cortical desynchronization
basl ganglia: acting, anticipating, prepping set INHIBITORY, REDUNDANT, GENERALIZING, STABLE, DEFENSIVE REMAIN AT BASELINE, CONSERVE |
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Luria's 2nd functional unit
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acquisition and retention of information
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Luria's idea of consciousness
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short term memory processes are consciousness.
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memory
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a collection of several integrated, but more or less discrete processes.
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information acquisition
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with sensation and perception
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information processing
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organization and comparison to existing information
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encoding
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the processes of setting up changes in the CNS, tagging, categorizing
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storage
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establishing the physical changes in teh CNS
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maintenance
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constant checking, reinterpreting, refreshing, and resisting forgetting
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retrieval
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returning stored information to consciousness in whatever degree.
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feedback
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accuracy check - influences the first stages from teh most recent retrieval.
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orienting response
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individual at rest, within homeostatic boundaries.
when novel information happens, baseline is disrupted whole system alerts to increase and focus attention - symp nervous response creates a sense of novelty or salience. amygdaloid in nature |
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habituation
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with repeated presentations/exposures to novel stimuli, system becomes used to them.
basal ganglia beginning to expect or anticipate recurrence of stimuli. orienting response is reduced with each exposure. hippocampal/septal in nature. |
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4 domains of memory
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visual
auditory tactile proprioceptive (smell and taste not in it) |
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very short term memory
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an echo of the stimuli in the structures that just processes them.
combination of hippocampus and other limbic structures with appropriate secondary cortexes unlimited capacity very brief duration iconic/echoic highly sensitive to interference |
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short term memory
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a transition phase between sensory memory and long term memory in which information is held in order to be processed and made meaningful through rehearsal.
limited capacity durability based on rehearsal rote vs elaborative |
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working memory
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an active process of using existing, acquired, understood information to process new information in order to make it memorable.
interaction of the temporal lobe and limbic system with the prefrontal cortex. |
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consolidation
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new information is fixed in the brain.most active during REM sleep.
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long term memory
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permanent storage
possibily limitless capacity, unknown duration |
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episodic
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memory for time and places
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categorical
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memory for categories
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procedural
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memory for activities or oeprations.
implicit and resists loss the best. you may lose nuance but not how to actually do the thing. |
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ACh
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primary transmitter in cortical component of memory processes.
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forgetting
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non-pathological inability to remember information.
most common cause: interference, poorly learned infomation, lacked encoding, poorly organized, low effort, non-meaningful learning doesn't stick. |
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trace decay
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over time, connections simply appear to break down.
information that isn't relevant to current life demands is placed ina kind of buffer that can be relearned in context. |
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nterference
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proactive and retroactive
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proactive interference
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old information retards acquisition of new information
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retroactive interference
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new information retards recall of older information
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amnesia
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pathological forgetting usually after injury (trauma induced)
2 types retrograde prograde/anterograde |
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retrograde
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events that happened before a trauma.
trauma interferes with the consolidation process. |
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prograde/anterograde
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events that happen after a trauma.
the inability to learn new information. |
