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257 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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agnosia
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The inability to recognize objects, despite being able to describe them in terms of form and color; may occur after localized brain damage
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agraphia
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The inability to write
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alexia
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The inability to read
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angular gyrus
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A brain region in which strokes can lead to word blindness
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anomia
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The inability to name persons or objects readily
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aphasia
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An impairment in language understanding and/or production that is caused by brain injury
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arcuate fasciculus
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A tract connecting Wernicke’s speech area to Broca’s speech area
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astereognosis
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The inability to recognize objects by touching and feeling them
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Broca’s area
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A region of the frontal lobe of the brain that is involved in the production of speech
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chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
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Also called dementia pugilistica or punch-drunk. The dementia that develops in boxers; it is especially prominent in successful boxers because they participate in more bouts
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conduction aphasia
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An impairment in the repetition of words and sentences
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constraint-induced movement therapy
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A therapy for recovery of movement after stroke or injury in which the person’s unaffected limb is constrained while he is required to perform tasks with the affected limb
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crystallization
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The final stage of birdsong formation, in which fully formed adult song is achieved
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deep dyslexia
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Acquired dyslexia in which the patient reads a word as another word that is semantically related
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dichotic presentation
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The simultaneous delivery of different stimuli to both the right and the left ears at the same time
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dyslexia
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A reading disorder attributed to brain impairment. Acquired dyslexia occurs as a result of injury or disease. Developmental dyslexia is associated with brain abnormalities present from birth
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ectopia
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Something out of place—for example, clusters of neurons seen in unusual positions in the cortex of someone suffering from dyslexia
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embryonic stem cell
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A cell, derived from an embryo, that has the capacity to form any type of tissue that a donor might produce
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fluent aphasia or Wernicke\'s aphasia
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A language impairment characterized by fluent, meaningless speech and little language comprehension; related to damage in Wernicke’s area
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fusiform gyrus
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A region on the inferior surface of the cortex, at the junction of temporal and occipital lobes, that has been associated with recognition of faces
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global aphasia
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The total loss of ability to understand language, or to speak, read, or write
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grammar
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All of the rules for usage of a particular language
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hemiparesis
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Weakness of one side of the body
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hemiplegia
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Partial paralysis involving one side of the body
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lateralization
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The tendency for the right and left halves of a system to differ from one another
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micropolygyria
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A condition of the brain in which small regions are characterized by more gyri than usual
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morpheme
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The smallest grammatical unit of a language; a word or meaningful part of a word
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motor theory of language
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The theory proposing that the left-hemisphere language zones are motor control systems that are concerned with both the precise production and the perception of the extremely complex movements that go into speech
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neologism
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An entirely novel word, sometimes produced by a patient with aphasia
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nonfluent aphasia or Broca\'s aphasia
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A language impairment characterized by difficulty with speech production but not with language comprehension; related to damage in Broca’s area
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nonfluent speech
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Talking with considerable effort, short sentences, and the absence of the usual melodic character of conversational speech
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paraphasia
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A symptom of aphasia that is distinguished by the substitution of a word by a sound, an incorrect word, an unintended word, or a neologism (a meaningless word)
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phoneme
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A sound that is produced for language
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planum temporale
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A region of superior temporal cortex adjacent to the primary auditory area
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prosody
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The perception of emotional tone-of-voice aspects of language
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prosopagnosia
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Also called face blindness. A condition characterized by the inability to recognize faces. Acquired prosopagnosia is caused by damage to the brain, particularly the fusiform gyrus. Developmental (or congenital) prosopagnosia is the result of brain defects present from birth
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recovery of function
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The recovery of behavioral capacity following brain damage from stroke or injury
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semantics
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The meanings or interpretation of words and sentences in a language
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sensitive period
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The period during development in which an organism can be permanently altered by a particular experience or treatment
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split-brain individual
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An individual whose corpus callosum has been severed, halting communication between the right and left hemispheres
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surface dyslexia
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Acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to attend only to the fine details of reading
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syntax
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The grammatical rules for constructing phrases and sentences in a language
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syrinx
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The vocal organ in birds
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tachistoscope test
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A test in which stimuli are very briefly exposed in either the left or right visual half-field
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Wada test
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A test in which a short-lasting anesthetic is delivered into one carotid artery to determine which cerebral hemisphere principally mediates language
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Wernicke's area
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A region of temporoparietal cortex in the brain that is involved in the perception and production of speech
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Williams syndrome
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A disorder characterized by fluent linguistic function, but poor performance on standard IQ tests and great difficulty with spatial processin
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acalculia
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inability to calculate
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tactile agnosia
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From damage to Parietal Lobe; inability to recognize objects by touch
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agonist
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enhances effect
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agraphia
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inability to write
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alexia
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inability to read
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alpha waves
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seen when an individual is in a relaxed, unfocused, yet still awake state
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anhedonia
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Inability to experience pleasure, associated with some mood and schizophrenic disorders.
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anosagnosia
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From damage to Parietal Lobe; Failure to recognize the symptoms or deficits associated with one's own disorder.
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anterograde amnesia
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the inability to form NEW memories because of brain trauma
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aphasia
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Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing Speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing Understanding).
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apraxia
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From damage to Parietal Lobe; Total or partial loss of the ability to perform coordinated movements or manipulate objects in the absence of motor or sensory impairment.
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beta waves
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The type of brain waves present when a person is awake and alert; typically indicating mental activity.
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Cholinergic
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synaptic transmission that is mediated by the release of acetylcholine
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chorea
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uncontrollable and irregular muscle movements
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conduction aphasia
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lesion in connections between Broca's and Wernicke's, difficulty repeating, articulation and comprehension intact, reading out loud poor, writing disturbed, comprehension good
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Cryptomnesia
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perceives information as being an original idea of their own
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delta waves
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largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep
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diffuse impairment
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loss of complex cognitive functions
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discrete impairment
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loss of foresight & concern, irresponsibility
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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
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Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion
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Gerstmann's syndrome
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a set of four deficits believed to be associated with damage to left parietal lobe (acalculia, finger agnosia, agraphia, and left-right disorientation)
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hemiparesis
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slight paralysis or weakness affecting one side of the body
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hydroncephalus
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excessive brain fluid
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hypnogogic hallucinations
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dreamlike auditory or visual experiences while dozing or falling asleep; most common in narcolepsy
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hypnopompic hallucinations
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Occur while waking from sleep ("Pompous upon awakening")
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Iatrogenically produced symptoms
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symptoms caused by medical or psychological treatment
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idiopathic
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Occurring without a known cause
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Kluver-Bucy syndrome
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A collection of symptoms, including tameness, extreme sexual behavior, and oral exploration, that results from damage to the temporal lobes, and the amygdala in particular.
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paraplegia
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paralysis of both legs and the lower part of the body
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paresis
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muscle weakness or partial paralysis
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paresthesia
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abnormal skin sensations (as tingling or tickling or itching or burning) usually associated with peripheral nerve damage
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petit mal seizure
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milder form of seizure lasting only a few seconds and does not include convulsive movements; also known as ABSENCE seizures
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proprioception
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the ability to sense the position, location, orientation and movement of the body and its parts
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prosopagnosia
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inability to recognize or identify a known face or individual; can be caused from damage to the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes
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retrograde amnesia
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loss of memories that were stored before a traumatic event
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synesthesia
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a blending of sensory experience that causes some people to "see" sounds or "taste" colors, for example
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theta waves
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the high amplitude, slow, regular waves that are exhibited during early light sleep (stages 1-2). A person daydreaming exhibits these waves
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tonic clonic seizure
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stiffening-jerking; a major motor seizure involving all muscle groups; previously termed GRAND MAL (big bad) seizure; verbal prosody rhythmic and intonational aspect of language
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Possible neurotransmitter causes of depression...
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Low levels of norepinephrine and/or serotonin.
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Possible neurotransmitter causes of schizophrenia...
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High levels of Dopamine and/or Serotonin.
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Myasthenia gravis
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autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness of voluntary muscles; caused by a deficiency of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions
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Low levels of SEROTONIN can cause...
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depression, suicide, PTSD, OCD, aggression, mania, bulimia.
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Motor symptoms in Huntington's caused by...
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degeneration of GABA in the basal ganglia
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Excessive GLUTAMATE can cause...
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seizures, stroke related brain damage, Huntington's, Alzheimer's, and other neurodegenerative disorders
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High levels of Dopamine linked to...
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schizophrena &Tourette's (movement)
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High levels of Serotonin linked to...
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schizophrenia, autism, and anorexia
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sexual dimorphism
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Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.
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Damage to Primary Motor Cortex
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Flaccid Hemiplegia (loss of muscle tone) in contralateral to damage; also loss of reflexes.
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Damage to Premotor Cortex
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Broca's/expressive aphasia - difficulties producing spoken and written language.
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Damage to Prefrontal Cortex
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-Pseudodepression (apathy, lethargy, narrowing of interests, reduced emotional reactions and interest in sex, impaired memory and attn);-Pseudopsychopathy (loss of social tact, empathy, incr impulsivity, sexual disinhibition; -Cognitive Deficits (probs in abstract thinking, planning ability, decision making, inability to remember temporal order of events)
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Hypofrontality
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Reduced activity in prefrontal cortex; Linked to ADHD and schizophrenia (negative symptoms)
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Asomatognosia
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Inability to recognize part of one's own body, seen with nondominant Parietal Lobe (or less commonly premotor cortex) lesions
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contralateral neglect
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damage to parts of the right parietal lobe produces a complete lack of attention to the left half of the body
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ideational apraxia
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an inability to perform a purposeful motor act, either automatically or upon command; an inability to retain the idea of the task and to formulate the necessary motor patterns (SEQUENCES); the patient no longer understands the overall concept of the act
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ideomotor apraxia
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The inability to carry out a simple motor activity in response to a verbal command, even though this same activity is readily performed spontaneously.
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Wernicke's aphasia
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Also known as fluent, sensory or receptive aphasia, a form of language loss or impairment in which speech consists of rapid, clearly spoken words or sentences, and even proper phrases and sequences of words, but is generally meaningless in content. People with this condition often have difficulty in understanding what other people say.
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Damage to Occipital Lobe
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can cause visual agnosia, visual hallucinations, or cortical blindness
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Simultanagnosia
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inability to perceive more than one object at a time
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contralateral representation
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left hemisphere controls the right and vice-versa except olfaction; visual info from each eye goes to both sides of brain
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hemispheric specialization
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Left= analytic thought, logic, language (words), science and math. Right= holistic thought, hunches, intuition, creativity, art, music, language (body language). They compliment each other
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split-brain studies
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corpus callosum was cut; Sperry & Gazzaniga found that numbers, words and pictures seen in right visual field (left Hemi) can be repeated or described with no difficulty b/c the left hemisphere is dominant for language. However if shown in the left visual field (right Hemi) the person often did not see anything. but could respond nonverbally by selecting the object indicated.
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dichotic listening task
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subjects report more digits heard by the ear contralateral to the hemisphere dominant in language; i.e. if language is lateralized to the LEFT, subject reports numbers heard in RIGHT ear
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gender differences in language lateralization
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on language related tasks, only the LEFT Hemi was active for males, while both LEFT and RIGHT Hemi's were active for females
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Trichromatic Theory
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Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory. (Believed to work at the retinal level of processing)
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Opponent-Process Theory
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Hering's visual theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; evidence supported by afterimages. (Believed to work at the Thalamus level)
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Color Blindness
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An inability to distinguish certain color combinations (sex-linked trait: 8% of males and .5% of females). Red-green is most common, then yellow-blue; 1) Monochromats-totally colorblind 2) Dichromats-partially colorblind [missing 1 pigment] 3) Trichromats- discriminate all colors.
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Binocular cues
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Depth cues such as retinal disparity and convergence that depend on the use of two eyes; responsible for depth perception of objects at relatively close distances.
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Monocular cues
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Information about depth that relies on the input of just one eye - includes relative size, light and shadow, interposition (overlap) of objects, relative motion (motion parallax), and linear and atmospheric perspective.
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Olfaction processes
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Olfactory receptors synapse immediately with neurons of the olfactory bulbs in the brain with no pathways to the thalamus; signals sent to orbitofrontal for ODORS and amygdala for MEMORY.
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Cutaneous Senses
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skin senses, including pressure on the skin, warmth, cold, pain, vibration, movement across the skin, and stretch of the skin
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Psychophysics
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the study of how physical energy relates to or translated into psychological experience including the study of how well humans detect differences in stimuli and thresholds for perception.
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Weber's Law
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The theory stating that the size of a just noticeable difference is a CONSTANT PROPORTION of the size of the initial stimulus (e.g. 1 gram must be added to 10 grams for an increase in wt to be detected, then 10 gr to 100 gr, etc)
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Fechner's Law
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A law that expresses the relationship between the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus, and states that sensation increases more slowly as intensity increases; stimulus changes are LOGARITHMICALLY related to psychological sensations.
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Steven's Power Law
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a law of magnitude estimation that is more accurate than Fechner's law and covers a wider variety of stimuli; uses EXPONENTIAL function (e.g. if a person places a value 3 on a tone, they hear another tone and name it a 6 if they think it's twice as loud)
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HERA
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Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry; LEFT cerebral cortex for encoding memories and RIGHT is for retrieval
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enlarged ventricles {correlated with}
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correlated with hydrocephalis and schizophrenia
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proprioception definition
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feedback solely on the status of the inside of the body, such as whether you're moving with required effort, what parts are being used
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Gertsmann syndrome occurs [area]
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when left parietal is damaged
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Memory: 2 sec, large capacity, echoic, iconic store
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Sensory memory
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Memory: 18-30 sec storage, it holds 7 +/- 2 (more if you use chunking)
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Short-term memory (also called primary or active memory)
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long-term memory; strategies to move info from short-term to long-term
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rehearsal (repeating), elaboration (give it meaning)
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implicit memory =
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procedural memory
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explicit memory =
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declarative memory
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prospective memory =
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thinking about what you have to do in the future
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recent memory =
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secondary memory
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Lesion
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Tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
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association areas
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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
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aphasia
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impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
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plasticity
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the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways on experience
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neurogenesis
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the formation of new neurons
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split brain
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a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corps callosum) connecting them
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consciousness
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our awareness of ourselves and our environment
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cognitive neuroscience
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the inter-disciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
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dual processing
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the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
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paraplegia
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lower limbs paralyzed
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quadriplegia
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four limbs paralyzed
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hemiplegia
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paralysis in an arm and leg on one side of pody
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paresis
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slight or partial paralysis
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paresthesia
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abnormal sensations such as numbness, tingling or burning
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hyperesthesia
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abnormal sensitivity to sensation
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Action potentials of any given neuron are governed by what?
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All-or-None-Law; -action potential is not related to intensity of stimulation, only minimum has to be reached to generate AP -intensity can generate more APs to stimulate more neurons
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Multiple Sclerosis caused by what?
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Loss of myelin - that which increases the speed of conduction. Produces muscular weakness, poor coordination, and tremors
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Acetylcholine's effect on muscles
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-found in junction bt nerve & muscle fibers -causes muscles to contract -defects cause probs w/voluntary mvmt
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Neurons that secrete Acetylcholine are called what?
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cholinergic neurons
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Acetylcholine's effect on brain
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-learning and memory (new memories) -implicated in Alzheimers (loss of ACh) -mediates sexual behavior and REM sleep
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Name the catecholamines
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Norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine
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Parkinson's Disease
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-too little dopamine -denigration of substantia nigra neurons in midbrain
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Schizophrenia
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too much dopamine, also too much norepinephrine
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depression
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too little norepinephrine; too little serotonin
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GABA
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-major inhibitory - depresses activity in NS -too little = anxiety -too little in motor areas of brain = Huntington's Chorea (invol, jerky mvmts)
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Glutamate
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-major excitatory in CNS -in hippocampus – memory -too much may be responsible for brain damage from stroke
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Functions of the Medulla Oblonata
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-basic functions -breathing, HR, BP, digestion -damage is fatal
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Functions of the Pons
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-arousal states -raphe nuclei (uses serotonin) - trigger and maintain slow wave sleep
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Functions of the Cerebellum
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-balance, coordination, posture
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ataxia
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-slurred speech, severe tremors, loss balance (T=tongue/tremors)-damage to cerebellum produces this
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Substantia Nigra
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-movement -part of extrapyramidal motor system -Parkinson's disease
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Reticular Formation
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-sleep and arousal -pain and touch -controls reflexes
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Reticular Activitating System (RAS)
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-crucial for waking state, arousal and attention -implicated in ADHD
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Hypothalamus
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-maintains body homeostasis (i.e. metabolism, temp, fluids) -motivation beh (i.e. drinking, eating, sex, aggression) -strong feelings into physical responses -contains suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?
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-controls circadian rhythms
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Thalamus
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-"central relay station" -relays sensory info to cortex except olfaction
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Basal Ganglia
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-voluntary movement -includes caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen
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Extrapyramidal
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motor system basal ganglia, substantia nigra, cerebellum
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Limbic system
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-emotional component of behavior -includes amygdala, septum and hippocampus
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Amygdala
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-emotional significance to info -mediates aggressive behavior -damage produces lack of emotional response
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Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
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-lesions in amygdala -reduced fear and aggression, docile, hypersexual
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Septum
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-part of limbic system -inhibits emotionality -damage produces hyper-emotionality and vicious behavior
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Hyppocampus
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-part of limbic system -memory consolidation - from short to long term -damage produces severe, permanent anterograde amnesia (no new memories)
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Damage to hippocampus, amygdala, and medial temporal lobes produces what?
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-severe, permanent anterograde amnesia (no new memories - think memento) -retain in short term but can't recall later
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Frontal Lobe
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-primary motor cortex -expressive lang -higher-order cognitive processes -orientation to person, place, time
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apraxia
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-inability to execute purposeful movements, despite normal strength and coordination (AX) -damage to frontal/parietal lobes
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Broca's aphasia
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-frontal lobe, left hemisphere, speech production, expressive lang -speak w/great difficulty ("Broken" english) -aware of deficits
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Prefrontal cortex
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-executive functions -lesions disrupt cognition/planning -show decreased initiative, lack self-awareness, concrete
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"Frontal Lobe Personality"
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depressive syndrome (apathy) or psychopathic syndrome (disinhibition - cussing, hypersexual, inapprop social beh)
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Temporal Lobe
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-receptive language (primary auditory cortex) -memory and emotion
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Wernicke's aphasia
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-temporal lobe, left hemisphere, lang comprehension, receptive lang -receptive or fluent aphasia -nonsense/jibberish speech -dysnomia-unaware of deficits
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dysnomia
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can't name familiar objects
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Temporal Lobe epilepsy
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personality syndrome: intense emotions, religiosity, social clinging, changes in sexual behavior
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Parietal Lobe
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-primary somatosensory cortex -touch-pressure, kinesthesia, pain and temp
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Lesions in parietal lobe produce what?
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-insensitivity to touch on opp side of body-contralateral disruption of movement -tactile agnosia -impaired spatial orientation and facial recognition -apraxia -contralateral neglect -inability to recognize body parts -agraphia
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Gertsmann's syndrome
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-patterns of deficits caused by lesions to parietal lobe-agrahia, acalculia, right-left confusion and finger agnosia
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Occipital Lobe
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-visual cortex -destruction in either hemisphere results in contralateral blindness -less extensive damage causes various distortions and visual agnosia
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left hemisphere (dominant) controls what functions?
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-verbal functions: written/spoken lang -rational/logical activities -damage results in clinical depression or intense anxiety
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right hemisphere (non-dominant) controls what functions?
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-visual-spatial activities -artistic/musical abilities -damage results in apathy and indifference, w/exaggerated but short lived emotional responses
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Corpus Callosum
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bundle of fibers that enables communication between two hemispheres
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conduction aphasia
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-caused by damage to arcuate fasciculus, fibers connecting Broca's and Wernicke's area -person's speech makes sense but person cannot repeat what they just heard
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Freud's belief about emotions
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-universal -not under conscious control -tied to early experiences
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James-Lange Theory of emotion
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behavior first then emotion, -we are afraid because we tremble, sorry because we cry
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Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion
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-behavior (arousal) and emotion happen simultaneously, not cause/effect -all emotions identical in terms of arousal
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Cognitive-Arousal Theory of emotion
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-Schachter and Singer -arousal and cognitive attributaions for arousal
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Universal emotions: T or F?
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True, agreement on 6 basic emotions: fear, anger, joy, sadness, surprise and disgust,
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Which two brain regions are centers for hunger and satiety?
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hypothalamus - lateral and ventromedial LH - failure to eat/drink, "Little Hunger" VMH - overeating, "Very Much Hunger"
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Research findings on external cues and obesity?
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-obese are less responsive to internal, biological hunger cue and more responsive to external cues -stress eating
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What effect does lutenizing hormone (LH) have on body?
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-from pituitary & hypothalamus -gonads (testes/ovaries) produce angdrogens and estrogen
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What effect does Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH) have on body?
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-from pituitary & hypothalamus -causes production of sperm and release egg
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Androgens
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-primarily male but found in female -testosterone -cause dev of 2' sex chara in males -sex inerest in both males and females
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Estrogens
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-found in male and females, male function unknown -females: sex dev and repod functioning -less of role in sex behavior - experience more of role
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Effect of spinal cord injury on sexual functioning
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-ejaculation affected, less on erection or interest -less effect on females
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Stages of sleep
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5 stages, 4 Non-REM, 5th REM 1-transitional, alpha into slower theta 2-theta, "sleep spindles", K-complexes (bursts faster/higher waves) 3-delta appear 4-predominantely delta (stages 3&4=delta/deep sleep) 5-REM, aroused nervous system w/low responsivity to environ
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alpha waves
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relaxed wakefulness
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beta waves
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active, alert states - faster
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Sleep cycle
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-100 minutes, 4-6x night -REM increases thru nite -delta/deep sleep decreases thru nite
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Memory: temporal lobe vs. hippocampus
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temporal lobe - long-term memory; hippocampus - consolidation
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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-memory disorder in alcoholics -lesions in mammillary bodies (hypothalamus) and thalamus -retro/antero amnesia, confabulation, apathy
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Long-term potentiation
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-responsible for long-term memory -changes in synaptic structrue following high stim of neurons -in hippocampal cells
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RNA
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-RiboNucleic acid -stimulates memory and learning -training/experiences increases RNA
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Endocrine system
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-controlled by hypothalamus -comprised of glands that secrete hormones to influence organ functioning -pituitary, adrenal, gonads, thyroid, pancras
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Pituitary gland
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-"master gland" -secretes growth hormone/somatotropic hormone -and antidiuretic hormone
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Adrenal Cortex
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-secretes cortisol-stimulates liver to convert energy into glucose for fuel -cortisol released by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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Addison's Disease
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-under-secretion of ACTH in adrenal cortex-fatigue, fainting, loss appetite, weight loss, depression, apathy
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Cushing's Disease
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-over-secretion of ACTH in adrenal cortex-obesity, memory loss, mood swings, depression, somatic delusions
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Thyroid gland
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-hormone thyroxin-controls metabolism
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Hypo-thyroidism
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under-secretion of thyroxin. slows metab, weight gain, decreased sex drive, depression w/cognitive impairment
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Hyper-thyroidism
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over-secretion of thyroxin-a.k.a. Grave's Disease-increase metab, appetite, weight loss, nervousness, insomnia, fatigue
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Pancreas
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-releases insulin -diabetes and hypoglycemia
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Brain Imaging Techniques
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refers to a series of techniques that utilize the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties to provide measures of brain structure and/or function. Often divided into 2 types: Structural & Functional
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Structural Techniques
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Computerized Tomography (CT);Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI); Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan)
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Computerized Tomography (CT)
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a method that involves passing X-rays through the brain from several different angles, creating multiple images which are digitally integrated into a two dimensional model; provides info on the density of brain tissues based on differential absorption of x-rays
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Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan)
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Takes a series of images at different levels of the brain using x-ray measuring the density of brain tissue
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Computerized Tomography (CT) & Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan) are used to identify...
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tumors, blood clots, tissue damage, & structural abnormalities e.g., cerebral vascular accident, multiple sclerosis
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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Takes a series of images at different levels of the brain using a magnetic field to create a 3-D brain image; more precise than CT & Does Not use x-rays
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Functional Techniques
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET); Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT); Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); Electroencephalography (EEG); Magnetoencephalography (MEG);
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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Measures metabolic brain activity. Small amounts of radioactive materials are either injected or inhaled; then, positrons i.e., positively charged particles are emitted from the unstable radioactive substance. Positrons collide with nearby electrons to release high energy gamma rays that are detected by the PET scanner. The PET scanner obtains numerous images of these emissions as the substance flows through the brain vasculature.
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What are aspects of metabolic brain activity measured by PET?
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blood flow, glucose metabolism, and oxygen consumption
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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Measures changes in the oxygen concentration of the blood in response to its utilization at various brain locations; is funtional
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Electroencephalography (EEG)
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measures the electrical field that is naturally generated by the brain; provides high temporal information about brain activity on the order of milliseconds, but relatively poor spatial resolution/localization.
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Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
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measures the magnetic field of the brain just as an electroencephalogram measures the electrical properties of the brain. The magnetic field runs perpendicular to the electrical field.
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Describe the charactersitics of fMRI
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When superimposed upon structural MRI images, fMRI can allow for a three-dimensional visualization of the site of activity.
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fMRI provides much less temporal resolution...
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than EEG.
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fMRI and MRI produce images of higher resolution...
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than PET.
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Clinical applications of EEG
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1. To study sleep patterns. During sleep, it can be used to monitor brain waves in order to delineate REM from non-REM sleep. 2. Monitoring anesthesia during surgical procedures 3. Studying cognitive functions of the brain. 4. Used in the diagnosis of epilepsy.
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Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
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radiological technique that integrates computed tomography (CT); a gamma-emitting radioisotope (called radionuclide) is injected into the bloodstream to visualize blood flow to tissues and organs--permits accurate localization in 3D space
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How do SPECT & PET differ?
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SPECT differs from a PET scan in that the tracer remains in the blood stream rather than being absorbed by surrounding tissue; especially useful to visualize blood flow through arteries and veins in the brain.
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Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS)
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derived from the changes in water density in the brain; since 80 percent of the brain is made up of water, MRI produces a high-resolution image of the brain; MRS, on the other hand, aims to produce an image of the remainder 20 percent of the brain, namely brain tissue; radio waves are used to image the variety of molecules that make up brain tissue including DNA, RNA, proteins, phospholipids, and organelles that make up the neurons.
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Polygraph
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an instrument that graphs several different biological measures simultaneously; e.g., it may simultaneously measure brain activity using an electroencephalogram, muscle activity using an electromyogram (EMG), eye-movement activity using an electrooculogram (EOG), and temperature using a thermometer.
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How do CT & MRI differ?
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1. Resolution: A CT scan produces a relatively low-resolution image when compared with more recently developed brain imaging techniques such as MRI.
2. MRI Does Not use x-rays |
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Clinical applications of PET
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Used primarily to study cognitive processes, although brain lesions may be detected when a lack of activity is observed in regions where activity would be otherwise expected.
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How do PET & MRI differ?
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MRI does not use radioactive materials like PET.
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Describe how MRI works.
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The MRI machine itself contains a large magnet. Hydrogen atoms (i.e., protons) in the brain rotate themselves to a particular orientation with respect to the magnet. The MRI machine records the radio frequencies emitted by the hydrogen atoms. MRI scanning results in high-resolution structural images of the brain.
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blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD)
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the hemodynamic signal detected by MRI
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How do EEG & MEG differ?
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MEG offers higher spatial resolution than EEG. Similar to EEG, MEG is used in the diagnosis of epilepsy and pre-surgical planning; however, it is not as popular as EEG or other measures of brain activity because of its higher cost.
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An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. a) CT scan b) PET scan c) (EEG) d) MRI e)fMRI
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c) Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. a) CT scan b) PET scan c) (EEG) d) MRI e)fMRI
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a) CT (Computed Tomography) scan
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A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. a) CT scan b) PET scan c) (EEG) d) MRI e)fMRI
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b) PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan
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A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. a) CT scan b) PET scan c) (EEG) d) MRI e)fMRI
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d) MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
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A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. . a) CT scan b) PET scan c) (EEG) d) MRI e)fMRI
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e)fMRI (functional MRI)
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Structural neuroimaging techniques
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CT & MRI, to Dx blood clots, tumors, multiple sclerois
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Functional viewing neuroimaging techniques
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fMRI, PET, SPECT to see brain activity to assess cerebrovascular disease, dementia, schizophrenia, Alzheimers
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
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used for demonstrating brain activity or functioning
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CAT scan
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computerized axial tomography (structure)
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