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196 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Name the neuronal structure based on the following information:

Contains DNA.
Nucleus
Name the structure based on the following information:

Receives input from other neurons. Long process.
Dendrite
Name the structure based on the following information:

Contains the majority of the cytoplasm and nucleus. Axons can synapse directly to this:
Cell body
What makes the rough endoplasmic reticulum, rough?
Ribosomes
What transports the genetic information (not the DNA itself) out of the nucleus? Where does it go?
mRNA. - Goes to the ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
What happens at the Ribosomes?
Amino acids are strung together based on the information contained in the mRNA to form proteins.
What happens at the Golgi apparatus? Name some examples
Modifies proteins delivered from the rough endoplasmic reticulum. -- I know of Glycosolation and phosphorolation
Name the structure based on the following information:

Action potential travels down this process
Axon
Name the structure based on the following information:

The site of integration of all IPSPs and EPSPs. Determines if the sum of IPSPs and EPSPs is sufficient for action potential to take place.
Axon Hillock
Name the structure based on the following information:

The site of ADP phosphorolation to synthesize ATP.
Mitochondria
Name the structure based on the following information:

contains enzymes that break down cellular waste in the cytoplasm
Lysosomes
Name the structure based on the following information:

The site at which vacuoles fuse to the neuronal membrane and release neurotransmitter into the synapse
Terminal buttons
Three components of cytoskeleton:
Microtubules
Neurofilament
Microfilament
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Lobes of the brain:
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Which lobe does not have a pole?
Parietal
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Large band of cortex adjacent to the length of the corpus callosum?
Cingulate (Cingulate Cortex)
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Limbic system structures in the temporal lobes?
2
Amygdala; Hippocampus (Not always included by everyone's definition of the limbic system, but fairly common)
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Fissure that separates the two hemispheres:
Longitudinal fissure
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

What is the name of a very deep crack between major portions of the brain?
Fissure
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere: What is the name of noticable (but not dramatically pronounced) cracks between gyri in the brain?
Sulcus (Plural: Sulci)
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

The name of a lump of tissue between sulci/fissures
Gyrus (plural: Gyri)
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Sulcus separating the frontal from the parietal lobe
Central sulcus
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Sulcus that separates the frontal from the temporal lobes (and sort of separates part of the temporal from part of the parietal)
Lateral sulcus
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Sulcus that separates the parietal and occipital lobes. Can you see it on a dorsal, lateral, or dorsolateral view of the brain?
Parieto-occipital sulcus
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

If you open up the lateral fissure, you will see
The insula!
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain via massive tracts of myelinated axons
Corpus Callosum
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Sulcus that separates the two portions of the occipital lobe
Calcarine sulcus
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Precentral gyrus includes what important area?
Primary motor cortex
Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:

Postcentral gyrus includes what important area?
Primary somatosensory cortex
Every sense or system that has a "Primary" area likewise has an:
association or secondary area.
Important Subcortical structures: Name them 3
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia
Important Subcortical structures: Important relay station for sensory, motor and other information?
Thalamus
Important Subcortical structures: Important for flight, fight, feasting and intercourse-related-stuff-and-things. Sits inferior (ventral) to the thalamus. Innervates the pituitary gland. Involved in many aspects of homeostasis.
Hypothalamus
Important Subcortical structures: Involved in motor movement, procedural memory. Contains four major subportions.
Basal Ganglia
Important Subcortical structures: What are the four major subportions of the basal ganglia?
Caudate
Putamen
Globus Pallidus
Substantia Nigra
Important Subcortical structures: The striatum is made up of?
2
The putamen and the caudate
Midbrain includes: 2
Tectum and tegmentum
Tectum includes: 2
Inferior and Superior Colliculi
Function of the inferior colliculi?
_____ processing
Certain _________ projections allow the allow the inferior colliculi to be involved in faster responding to _________stimuli than ________ processing.
auditory processing. Certain direct projections (in part, to the spinal cord) allow the inferior colliculi to be involved in faster responding to auditory stimuli than conscious processing. (I.e., you respond to a startling noise faster than you consciously process it).
Function of the superior colliculi?
__________ processing
Certain ________ projections (in part, to the spinal cord) allow the superior colliculi to be involved in _________responding to ________ stimuli than ____________processing.
Visual processing. Certain direct projections (in part, to the spinal cord) allow the superior colliculi to be involved in faster responding to visual stimuli than conscious processing. (I.e., you respond to a startling noise faster than you consciously process it).
Two ways in which the hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland?
Via __________ directly on the _______ - through ___________ ____________ transmission
Via hormonal secretion directly on the gland. -- Through synaptic (chemical) neuronal transmission.
What is the master gland?
Pituitary gland
Limbic system includes? 4
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Fornix
Cingulate

(These are ill definied and different people disagree about what should and should not be included. Sam and I agreed this is what he tends to think of as the limbic system).
Function of the fornix
Communicates information from the ________ to the ___________ via the ___________ ___________
Communicates information from the hippocampus to the hypothalamus via the mammilary bodies.
The mammillary bodies are (kind of) a part of this structure
Sort of, part of the hypothalamus.
Function of the amygdala?
Emotions (broadly). Often fear and anxiety.
function of the hippocampus 3
memory formation, consolidation, retrieval.
Functions of the cingulate Cortex
regulation of emotion and cognition
Function of the Reticular activating system:
Attention, alterness, sleep-wake cycles. Damage can cause coma.
Layer of membrane encasing the ventricles?
Septum Pellucidum
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

How many layers are there?
6
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

Name the first layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve?
______ layer
d______ and a________
Connectivity between _________ ________ _______
Mostly ____________ communication
Molecular layer -- Dendrites and axons -- Connectivity between various other layers. -- Mostly local communications
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

Name the Second layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve?
_________ ___________ _________ layer
___________ cells - very __________
___________ axonx
______________ communication
Usually _________ input mor than ________ info
External granule cell layer -- Granular cells. Very small. Short axons. -- Local communication. Usually receive input more than send information.
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

Name the third layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve?
___________ ____________ __________ __________
_______________ cells
_______________ projections
Communicates with other ______________ _________ areas
_____________ not a ______________ to _____________ portion of the ________________
External pyramidal cell layer Pyramidal cells-- Long projections. Communicates with other far away areas. Sender. Not receiver. To another portion of the cortex.
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

Name the fourth layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve?
______________ ____________ __________ layer
_________ cells - _________
______________ from much _______________ projections
Often _________ info
______________ from _______ areas often from the ____________
Internal granular cell layer -- Tiny cells. Dots --- Input from Much much longer projections. Often sensory information. Long projections from subcortical areas. Often from the thalamus
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

Name the Fifth layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve?
________ ____________ _________
_______________ cells
__________ _________ projections __________ the cortex
Internal pyramidal cells Pyramidal cells -- Very long projections. -- Long long projections outside the cortex.
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:

Name the sixth layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve?
_____________ - _______________
_________ kinds of cells
Does _________ things
Projects back to the _________________
Multiform - polymorphic -- Lotsa kinda of cells. -- Does a Lotta things. But also projects back to the thalamus.
The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties: What important concept might be important to know about cortical layers with respect to certain brain regions (i.e., what might be different between two areas?)?
The relative size of a given layer will vary depending on the general function of that area. Inversely, the size of the layer can tell researchers about the types of information coming or going from a given area.
What are the three components of the brainstem? 3
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
Five functions of the brain stem?
Mediates
Entry of info from
What mediates what?
Pathways that carry what where
______ _________ - where? receives what and regulates what?
Tali told me this: (1) Mediates sensation and motor control of head, neck, face. Carried by 12 crainial nerves, 31 spinal nerves. (2) entry of information from specialized senses, heartbear, balance, taste. (3) Specialized neurons mediate parasympathetic reflexes (cardiac input, Peristalsis of the gut, and pupil constriction). (4) Pathways that carry sensory and motor information to other divisions of the CNS. (5) reticular formation (in the core of the brain stem) - receives sensory information and regulates altertness and arounsal.
Substantia nigra is part of what subcortical structure? But is actually found in which brain stem structure?
Basal Ganglia ; Midbrain
Function of the midbrain:
Act as a _______ ________ for _________ and ____________ information
Controls many important functions such as the __________
and ________ systems as well as _________ ___________
Acts as a sort of relay station for auditory and visual information.

controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well as eye movement.
CSF is synthesized at the:
Choroid Plexus
Choroid Plexus are comprised of:
Epithelial Cells
Choroid Plexus are found in? The largest collection of them are in the __________ ventricle(s)
All of the ventricles. Lateral Ventricules
CSF in the lateral ventricles progresses to the _______________ via the ______________ of _____________
third ventricle ; Foramin of Monroe
CSF in the 3rd ventricle progresses to the ______________ via the ______________ _____________
4th ventricle; cerebral aqueduct
CSF in the 4th ventricle leaves the ventricular system and proceeds to the ______________ via the _____________ of ____________ and ___________ of ____________
(Meninges OR subarachnoid space) via the Foramina of Luschka and Foramen of Magendie.
CSF is reabsorbed into ____________ at _________________
the vascular system (through veins) at the Midsagittal sinus (I learned this as Superior sagittal sinus).
Cells that facilitate the absorption of CSF into the blood stream are called:
Arachnoid Granulations.
Three layers of the meninges
Dura Mater; arachnoid layer; pia mater
Tough, leathery outer layer of meninges
Dura Mater
Softer inner layer of the meninges that follows the contours of cerebral gyri and sulci?
Pia mater
Axons are _______ ________ processes that _______ _______ ______ with other _________
____________ info
Extend _________ from the cell body
Carries _______ to ___________ ___________
 long , thin processes that get in touch with other neurons
o Transmits information
o Extends away from cell body
o Carries APs to terminal buttons
Dendrites
___________ information from other ______ _________
Can ________ to __________ with many other __________
Can also be described as ___________ _____________
o Receives information from other nerve cells

Can branch to synapse with many many other axons.

Also could be described as a long process.
Types of Neurons
Unipolar -- Bipolar -- Multipolar -- Pseudounipolar
Unipolar cells
3
o Most simple, have a single primary process
o Dendrite comes out of the same pole as axon
o Very rare
o Ex: found in ANS (autonomic nervous system? Can someone confirm?)
Bipolar cells
What does it look like
dendrite goes
axon goes
o Oval-shaped cell body with 2 processes on opposite ends of the poles
 Dendrite goes into the periphery
 Axon goes toward the center of the NS
o Ex: sensory cells
• Multipolar

________ axon and _________ dendrite
______ and ____________ of ________ correlate with number of ___________ contacts that other _________ make onto them
common?
o Has a single axon and many dendrites coming out of the cell
o Number and extent of dendrites correlate with number of synaptic contacts that other neurons make onto them
o Most common
Pseudounipolar cells
_______ out into ______ directions
__________ axon and __________ dendrite
Similar to
o Branches out into 2 directions  one axon and one dendrite
o Similar to a bipolar cell
o Parts of neuron that receive input
 Dendrite and cell body
o Part of the neuron that transmits information
______ where
integration where and what does it do
 Axon (at the presynaptic terminal)
 Integration (meaning the summation of IPSPs and EPSPs) meets at the axon hillock, travels down only if it is large enough
Process through which DNA becomes a protein
________ in the ________ is coded into ________. _________ leaves the nucleus and travels to the __________ along the _____________________. __________ create the proteins by binding ________ _________ together based on the information contained in the ________. Proteins then move on to the __________ where they are modified (post-transcriptional modification).
DNA in the nucleus is coded into mRNA. mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the Ribosomes along the Rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes create the proteins by binding amino acids together based on the information contained in the mRNA. Proteins then move on to the golgi where they are modified (post-transcriptional modification).
Proteins and amino acids have what type of charge?
______
and that's why the _______ ________ _______ is ___________
How many of what are in there
Negative. Hence the reason why neuronal resting potential is negative. There are TONS of proteins and amino acids in neurons.
o Ribosomes
What travels here
they do what to make what
where do they get the information
mRNA travels here. Ribosomes bind amino acids together to make proteins. This is based on the information contained in the mRNA.
Cytoplasm
Free ______ and __________
Holds
Extends to
Free chemicals and proteins. Holds the organelles. Extends into the dendrites.
Endoplasmic reticulum.
Where
__________ __________ _________ is covered in _____________
Surrounds the nucleus. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered in ribosomes.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Has _______ that travel to the _______ ___________
has proteins that travel to golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Main function
How?
Main function is the production of ATP (adenocine triphosphate; we use this for energy) which is produced through a process called oxidative phosphorolation of ADP (Adenocine diphosphate).
Where does protein synthesis occur?
In the Endoplasmic reticulum.
• Neuronal cytoskeleton (three types)
Microtubules; neurofilaments; microfilaments
Microtubules
Runs down the _______ ________ of the ___________
Made of ___________ in a _________ ______
_________ structure made of _______ and ________ _________
Grows via _____________ when it stops growing it's __________ by ___________
Runs down the ________
What is used as tracks
__________ __________ for _____________
 Extends the full length of the neuron
 Made of protofilaments in a tubular array
 Polar structure made of alpha and beta tubulins
 Grows via dimers. When it stops growing, it’s capped by tubulin
 Runs down the axon
 Proteins used as tracks
 Axonal transport for proteins
Motor proteins
do what
What are they and what do they do
Transport various cellular cargo (I believe this includes proteins and neurotransmitters).

Kinesine - Anterograde motor protein. Carries cargo toward the terminal button. Dynein - retrograde motor protein. carries cargo away from the terminal button toward the cell body.
Neurofilaments
Fill the ______ __________
gives it it's _______ and __________
Fill the cell body. Gives the cell body it's shape/structure. Very important! We would otherwise have weird glob-cells. I don't want weird glob cells. :(
Microfilaments
similar to ____________
form a ________ network with a __________ number of ______-________ proteins
Act as ____________
similar to neurofilaments. Form a dense network with a large number of actin-binding proteins. Act as tracks.

FROM ONLINE SOURCE: Microfilaments are solid rods made of a protein known as actin. When it is first produced by the cell, actin appears in a globular form (G-actin; see Figure 1). In microfilaments, however, which are also often referred to as actin filaments, long polymerized chains of the molecules are intertwined in a helix, creating a filamentous form of the protein (F-actin). All of the subunits that compose a microfilament are connected in such a way that they have the same orientation. Due to this fact, each microfilament exhibits polarity, the two ends of the filament being distinctly different. This polarity affects the growth rate of microfilaments, one end (termed the plus end) typically assembling and disassembling faster than the other (the minus end). (Source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/microfilaments/microfilaments.html)
Neuronal membrane potential refers tot he overall
Refers to the overall (cumulative) charge of the neuron.
Neuronal resting potential
_________mV
Average of the __________ _________ _________
Why the charge
-65mV. (I always learned -70mV; this is an average of common resting potentials and depending on what was sampled, the estimate could vary). It is important to know that this is NEGATIVE! Why? Mostly because of negatively charged proteins in the neuron.
EPSP. What does it stand for? Describe the process?
Stands for excitatory postsynpatic potential. Typically this means that Sodium (Na) has entered the cell (typically following the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter at the synapse). The cell becomes Depolarized (meaning the cell becomes less negative and moves toward positive charge). If the cell is depolarized enough (Threshold) at the axon hillock, action potential will occur.
IPSP. What does it stand for? Describe the process?
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential. Typically, (Cl) will flow into the cell. This usually happens following the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter at the synapse). The cell becomes hyperpolarized (Meaning it becomes more negatively charged). This makes action potential LESS likely, hence why it is called inhibitory.
action potential
generated by
located at
___ or ________
Won't
o Generated by a sudden Na influx through voltage-gated channels in the membrane
o Located at the initial segment, which has the lowest threshold for generating an AP
o All or none
o AP won’t decay as it travels along the axon to its target
• Glial cells 4
o Oligodendrocytes (CNS); Schwann Cells (PNS); microglia; astrocytes
 Oligodendrocytes
Provides
insulates
• Provides segments of myelin to many different axons
• Insulates multiple axons
 Schwann Cell
how many
What does it do
• One Schwann Cell provides one segment of myelin per axon
o Cell wraps itself and the cytoplasm is pushed out to the outer layer
o Astrocytes
______- like
_________function
They ______ when
Picks up _____from the ______ ________
Takes up _____________ when
sometimes
have ______ processes some terminate in
They might bring _________ in
 “star-like”
 Supportive function
 They hypertrophy when there is damage
 Picks up K from the ion channels
 Takes up chemicals from the synapse released by neurons
 Sometimes replace damaged areas on the BBB
 Have long processes, some of them terminate in end-feet
• End-feet may bring nutrients in
o Microglia
Mobilized when
What are they and what to they produce
Involved in
If there is damage they do what
 Mobilized after injury/infection/disease
 Immune cells, produce antibodies
 Involved in phagocytosis
 Damage in the NS  they become enlarged and WBCs are also recruited
o Walls of the ventricles filled with
ependymal cells.
Chroid plexus is the ______ of ________ covered by _______ cells
specialization of blood vessels, covered by ependymal cells.
(Ion Channels) What types of gates do we have? 4
Voltage-gated
ligand-gated
phosphorylation gated
stretch/pressure gated
Voltage-gated channels
Detect changes in _______
Respond to ________ _________ within the ____________
• Detects changes in membrane potential. Responds to specific charges within the membrane.
Ligand-Gated channels
What is a ligand
There is what for the ligand
The ligand does what and then what happens
• Ligand  a chemical that enzymes work on (NT)
• There is a receptor for the ligand
The ligand binds with the receptor and the channel opens in response.
 Phosphorylation-gated channels
when a phosphate group is added, the channel opens
Stretch/pressure gated channels?
Found where
Receives what as an NT
What does stretch do
_______ gated
• Found in muscles
• Receive Ach as NT
• Stretch  carries info from spindle fibers about how much it’s been stretched
• Mechanically gated
Ion channels
Use _________ transport
they are ______ than pumps
They ___________ require energy
What happens when the channel opens
 Ion channels use passive transport
• They’re faster than pumps
DO NOT require energy. Once the channel is opened, the ions flow along their concentration gradient, hence why it is called passive transport
Ion channels are selective - They work for one type of ion, but not others.
o Three states of a channel (5.5)*
They can be _____ ______ or ________
Example
They can be: Resting, open or inactivated. (Using voltage gated channels as an example) When resting, detection of action potential would open the channel -- When open, an action potential is active and ions are flowing -- When inactivated, the channel will not open even if action potential is detected. The is why refractory periods occur.
Transporters and pumps.
They use __________ transport
Must go through _______ changes
They use________ to __________ ions ________ the ____________ gradient
 Pumps/transporters use active transport
• Must go through conformational changes
• They use energy (ATP) to transport ions against their electrical/chemical gradients

Slower and more expensive (in terms of resources)
What do pumps and channels have in common?
Similar ______
they are ___________
Channels can be _______
gates are ________
Channel that is ________
can be
o Similar structure
o They are selective – they choose which ions that they will move
o Channels can be open or closed – not only in one conformation
o Gates are very sensitive
o Channel that is structured
o Can be plugged
o molecule in the way
 Na/K exchanger
how many
Move what against what
has
What is inside and what is outside
• 3 Na leave, 2 K enter
• Moves Na/K against their electrochemical gradients
• Requires ATP (hydrolysis)
• Has binding sites
o Na/ATP  inside
o K  outside
 Ca pump
What does it do and why
• Pumps calcium out for each ATP used. We can't let Calcium stay in the cell. It'll dieee. :(
Cl pump
Uses ______ stored in the ______ of other ________ called
Where
• Use the energy stored in gradients of other ions (cotransporters). Pumps Chloride out of and into the cell? Can we check this??
Which ion passively exits the cell? What is it's charge?
Potassium +
Why is it that ions are always in position, ready to flow into the cell when channels open?
The neuron is negatively charged. extracellular, Positively charged ions line up along the cell membrane due to the attraction created by their opposing charges.
Why can't all of the ions diffuse?
channels are ________ and the _______ ______ acts as a ________ between the __________ and __________ of the cell
Channels are selective and the lipid bilayer acts as a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell.
At resting potential, K channels are
usually open, allowing potassium to leak out.
When hyperpolarization occurs, this ion is entering the cell. What is that ions charge?
what is Chloride? Negative.
When depolarization occurs, this ion is entering the cell? What is that ions charge?
Sodium (Na). Positive.
When the axon hillock's integration of IPSPs and EPSPs determines that action potential should take place. This ion begins to move which direction and to what effect?
Sodium surges into the cell and pushes the charge dramatically more positive.
At the peak of an action potential (i.e., the charge inside the neuron is at it's most positive), This ion stops rushing into the cell and this ion begins rushing out.
Sodium channels close and sodium stops rushing into the cell. Potassium begins to race out of the cell.
After an action potential has occurred, how does the neuron return all of the proper ions to their proper place!
Pumps! Mostly, sodium-potassium pump.
Four properties of action potentials
o Have a threshold for initiation
o All or none event
o AP is conducted without decrement, has a self-generative feature that keeps the amplitude constant
o AP is followed by a refractory period
• Similarities and differences b/t the two most common ion channels (Na and K)
2 similarities
2 differences
o Similarities (in terms of AP)
• Both are sensitive to voltage (depolarization)
• The larger the potential, the higher the probability that the channel will open
o Differences
 Na channels open faster, you have the rising of the AP
 K channels don’t have a refractory period (Na does)
Properties of electrical synapses
Allows
makes speed
Sends
What kinds of junctions
Very ______
Connect how to what
What uses these
Current crosses the membrane through
o Allows direct, rapid, synchronous passage of current
o Makes speed faster/instantaneous
o Sends rapid depolarizing signals
 Gap junctions  b/t the 2 terminals
• Very small
• Direct connect the cytoplasm of the 2 cells
• Glial cells use these
 Current crosses the membrane through channels
• Properties of chemical synapses
how are they connected?
What initiates what?
The binding opens what and does what
can produce
Does what to neuronal signals
o Synaptic cleft that separates presyn from postsyn terminal
o AP initiates the release of a NT and interacts with the receptor on the postsyn membrane
o The binding opens ion channels hat initiate a charge in the postsyn membrane
o Can produce more complex behaviors
o Amplifies neuronal signals
Requirements for neurotransmitter release
Transmission occurs where
What are precursors to NT's how
Where are NT's found
What channels are at the axonal ending
What is triggered and what happens
Causes what to happen how
Where do they go
What does it activate
where?
what does that lead to
o Transmission occurs at the active zone
o Proteins are precursors to NTs (anterograde transport)
o NTs found in vesicles
o Ca channels are at axonal endings; when an AP is triggered  Ca enters cell from voltage-gated
 Causes vesicles to use with presyn and release NTs via exocytosis  goes into synaptic cleft  activates receptors on the postsyn membrane, leading to opening/closing of ion channels
• Synaptic vesicles
Located where
rise in what causes what
What happens
o Located in active zones of chemical synapses
o Rise in Ca causes vesicles to fuse with presyn terminal
o One vesicle has several thousands of NTs that can open thousands of ion channels in the target cell
Two classes of receptors
Ionotropic and metabotropic
Ionotropic receptors
What kind of channel
Mediates what
Changes what how fast
What kind of gating
The NT opens the channel how
What kind of SP
What did we do
What are the channels that open
• Ligand-gated channel
• Mediates behaviors
• Change the balance of charge across the neuron’s membrane quickly
• Direct gating
o NT opens the channel directly
 EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
• We excited the cell
o Most likely Na or K (ex: glutamate); Na channels will open
Metabotropic receptors
Moduale _______
NT activates what
Produce what that do what
How many - what are they called
What kind of gating
Interacts with
• Modulate behaviors
• NT will activate proteins  activate effector enzymes  produce 2nd messengers (cAMP) that catalyze modifications of other proteins
• 2 types
o G protein-couples
o Tyrosine kinase
• Indirect gating
o Interacts with other receptors that change the metabolism of the cell
• Structural differences b/t excitatory and inhibitory synapses
Excitatory are what
They have what
They are
Have what kind of vesicles
______ synaptic cleft
Larger postsynaptic _________
Prominent
Contact what where
o Type 1
 Excitatory (glutamatergic)
 Larger active zones
 Asymmetric
 Have round synaptic vesicles
 Wide synaptic cleft
 Larger postsyn density
 Prominent presyn dense projections
 Contact spines on the dendrites

o Type 2
 Inhibitory (GABAergic)
 Contact cell body and dendritic shaft
 Oval or flattened shaped vesicles
 Modest basement membrane
 Small active zone
 Narrow postsyn cleft
 Less obvi dense projections
• Four criteria met by all NTs
Synthesized where
Present where and what has to happen
What does it mimic
Specific mechanism for what
What is that called
o 1. Synthesized in the presynaptic neuron
o 2. Present in the terminal and has to be enough that it releases an AP
o 3. When administered exogenously in reasonable concentrations it mimics the action of the endogenous transmitter
o 4. Specific mechanism usu exists for removing the substance from the synaptic cleft
 Most common way to get rid of excess NT: REUPTAKE via presyn cell!
• Major excitatory and inhibitory NTs
2
o GABA  inhibitory
o Glutamate  excitatory
o ACh
What is it called
Primarily
Starts as a
_______ __________ enzyme
_____________ _____________
By product
Acetylcholine
 Primarily excitatory
 Starts as choline
 Rate-limiting  specific enzyme required for the NT to be made
• Choline aceytltransferase!!
 By-product: Acetyl Coenzyme A
 These are cholinergic!!
o Catecholamines
3
What has an enzyme that gets converted to what
_______ back
 Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
• Tyrosine has an enzyme (tyrosine hydroxylase) that gets converted into L-DOPA
• L-DOPA gets decarboxylated to yield dopamine and CO2
• Dopamine + dopamine B-hydroxylase  norepinehprine
• Norepinephrine + 5th enzyme  epinephrine
 These all occur in steps!
• Feedback!
o Serotonin
Made from __________
A.K.A. 5-HT

 Made from tryptophan
• And 2 enzymes: trp-hydroxylase and 5-hydroxytrypamine
How do humans acquire the necessary amino acids required for protein synthesis?
Eatz proteinz. Num num num.
o Glutamate
 Most frequently used at excitatory synapses throughout CNS
o Glycine
 Major NT used by inhibitory interneurons
o GABA
 Made from glutamate, catalyzed by glutamic acid decarboxylase
 Inhibitory
• Termination of transmitter action
by _______ - what is that
D_________
Only used by _________- ___________
What happens to Ach
What happens to choline
o Diffusion
 Removes some fraction of all chemical messengers
o Degradation
 Only used by cholinergic synapses
 Ach hits cleft and become hydrolyzed to choline and acetate (via acetylcholinterase)
 The choline is recaptured (no uptake for ACh);

(Reuptake too?)
These act on opioid receptors
 Opiocortin, enkephalins, dynorphin, FMRFamide
insula thought to play a role in
Thought to have a role to play in the conscious processing of emotions. If Dr. G. said something different, please let me know.
 ponteine nucei
movement and sensation from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
Thalamus
Link in the pathway of _______ from ________ to ________ of the __________ _________
Interconnects teh ________ and _________ with regions of the _________ __________concerned with what
 Link in the pathway of sensory info from the periphery to sensory organs of the cerebral hemispheres
 Interconnects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with regions of the cerebral cortex concerned with movement/cognition
Cerebellum
Where
Important for
Involved in
o Lies over the pons
o Important for maintaining posture and coordinating head, eye, and arm movements
o Involved in minute regulation of motor output and learning motor skills
Basal Ganglia
Control of
 Control of movement and aspects of motor learning
Hypothalamus
Where
Regulates what
to where
influences _______ through
important to the
 Ventral to the thalamus
 Regulates homeostasis and several reproductive behaviors
• Ex: somatic growth, eating, drinking,
 Regulates the hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland
 Influences behavior through efferent/afferent connections with every region of the CNS
 Important of the motivational systems of the brain
o Medulla
regulates what
early components that moderate 4
regulating BP and respiration• Early components that moderate taste, gearing, and maintenance of balance; control of neck and facial muscles
o Pons
Relay info about _______ from _________
Ventral
Dorsal
 relay info about movement and sensation from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
 Ventral  ponteine nucei (movement and sensation from cerebral cortex ro cerebellum
 Dorsal  structures involved in respiration, taste, and sleep
o Midbrain
links for
has components of the
Gives rise to pathways that are connected to the
links for the motor system (cerebellum, basal ganliga, cerebral hemispheres)

 Has components of the auditory and visual systems
 Give rise to pathways that are connected to the extracellular muscles that control eye movements
 Substantia nigra
regulates what
regulates voluntary movements
Peripheral nervous system is divided into
Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Autonomic nervous system is divided into
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Somatic nervous system
What three things
have to do with the _______
muscles, skin, internal sensations that have to do with the body
o Autonomic
Visceral, automatic
• Sympathetic
Higher arousal (playing sports, fighting, etc.)
Parasympathetic nervous system
More active during resting states (Like lying on the beach, sleeping).
Circulation of the spinal cord
What gives rise to what
Vertebral arteries which give rise to the anterior spinal artery.
Top of the basilar artery gives rise to
The posterior cerebral artery
posterior cerebral arteries supplies:
(occipital, temporal), (I think it also helps supply the cerebellum and midbrain and hind brain. But I could be wrong).
middle cerebral artery supplies:
6
!!! internal structures, striatum, anterior thalamus, portions of the parietal, temporal lobes and even a bit of the frontal lobes (broca's aphasia often caused by MCA infarct).
Anterior cerebral artery supplies
3
part of the frontal lobes. inferior aspects of the frontal lobes. Orbital plane. Anterior portion (splenium) of the corpus callosum.
Internal Carotid artery gives rise to:
anterior and middle cerebral arteries. (Tali's notes say: comes in from foramen, penetrates the dura, and divides into anterior and middle cerebral arteries)
o Recurrent artery of heubner
4
 supplies deeper cerebrum and diencephalon (limbic structures, head od caudate, anterior limb of internal capsule) -- I think this is a branch of the MCA and I dunno that we need to know it in this detail.
o Vertebral arteries
Tali's notes say: come from subclavian arteries and enter cranium through foramen
 They each give off an anterior spinal artery and posterior cerebellar artery
 go together to form basilar artery
• They give off anterior inferior cerebellar artery and superior cerebellar artery
• Also divides into 2 posterior cerebral arteries  supply the inferior temporal and occipital lobes and posterior corpus callosum
Why is CSF so important?
Bouyancy makes our brains weigh lots less!
Types of information carried through the somatosensory system?
Proprioception (joints/muscles); Touch (Skin); Nociception/pain (can be interoceptive and exteroceptive); temperature.
What is one of the essential principles to understand with respect to a neuron's size:
The larger the diameter, the thicker the axon and the faster the conduction. This also includes more myelination (since the myelin has to cover an extended area.
Afferent (incomming) neurons from the PNS travel through the:
The dorsal root ganglion.
Motor neurons travel out of the spinal cord through the
Ventral portion of the spinal cord.
Dorsal root ganglion
What is it and where
Carries info from and terminates where
A cluster of cells that lies adjacent to the spinal cord.
Sensory input flows through here.  Carries info from muscles and skin into the spinal cord and terminates in the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord
What are roots?
When tons and tons of neurons are cascading into the spinal cord, it looks like roots. So they called it that.
How many spinal nerves ya got? How many cranial nerves ya got?
31; 12
Each spinal nerve receives information from a segment of the body. What's this called?
Dermatome!
posterior column
important part of what pathway includes what structures
important part of an ascending pathway including both the fasciculus gracilus and the faciculus cuneatus.
Pain and temperature decussate when? Where? Why is it important that it decussates immediately? Where does the first order neuron terminate?
Synapses immediately and decussates almost immediately upon entering the spinal cord (1 or 2 segments up). --  Info comes into spinal cord and it synapses in the gray matter
 Important for reflexes, then it decussates
 Goes through the spinothalamic tract
 Terminates in the dorsal horn
Touch and proprioception decussate when? where? Then where does it go?
Touch and proprioception decussate in the medule at the gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus. It is the second order neurons that decussation. It then travels to the lemniscus and eventually to the thalamus. From the thalamus it continues to travel to the primary somatosensory cortex (PostCentral Gyrus) and then to the Somatosensory association cortex.
Which cranial nerves join the touch and proprioception nerves as they head toward the medula?
o Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal (someone fact check me on this?). Maybe the vagus as well?
Which cranial nerve carries sensory information from the visceral organs?
Vagus nerve
Touch and proprioception synapse where in the thalamus?
Ventral posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus.
Pain and temperature synpases (after the medula)?
What is it important for
In the dorsal anterior insular cortex. What did we say the insula was potentially important for? Conscious processing of emotions? Turns out that includes emotional information related to pain. In fact, the insula shows increased activation in anticipation of painful stimulus AND in empathic pain paradigms. How fudging cool is this stufz?!
Where is the primary somatosensory cortex?
Postcentral gyrus
Where is the primary motor cortex?
precentral gyrus
Receptive fields
what happens
what do they have
defines the
o A neuron is going to receive info from a certain area of the skin
o Will have an inhibitory or excitatory center
o Defines the zone of tactile sensitivity
o Unimodal association area -
involved in the
are only concerned with
converges where
 involved in the early stages of sensory of sensory processing are only concerned with a single modality
 Converges on multimodal association areas of the cortex concerned with combining sensory modalities
Multimodal association area
2 things
o Important for 2 tasks
 The production of a unified perception (like tactile)
 Representation of the perception in memory (remember how your grandmother's house smells on a warm spring day?)
• Complexity of information processed by various cortical areas. Describe the general principle/process
o As you move from primary  association  multimodal, it gets more abstract
rate-liming enzymes are enzymes in a neuron that are needed to make a _______________.
Each NT has one and then what
neurotransmitter
each neurotransmitter has a rate-limiting enzyme, and if a cell has that enzyme, it will make the transmitter. i.e. if a cell has LDOPA, it is dopaminergic. LDOPA is the enzyme.