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196 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Name the neuronal structure based on the following information:
Contains DNA. |
Nucleus
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Name the structure based on the following information:
Receives input from other neurons. Long process. |
Dendrite
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Name the structure based on the following information:
Contains the majority of the cytoplasm and nucleus. Axons can synapse directly to this: |
Cell body
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What makes the rough endoplasmic reticulum, rough?
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Ribosomes
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What transports the genetic information (not the DNA itself) out of the nucleus? Where does it go?
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mRNA. - Goes to the ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
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What happens at the Ribosomes?
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Amino acids are strung together based on the information contained in the mRNA to form proteins.
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What happens at the Golgi apparatus? Name some examples
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Modifies proteins delivered from the rough endoplasmic reticulum. -- I know of Glycosolation and phosphorolation
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Name the structure based on the following information:
Action potential travels down this process |
Axon
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Name the structure based on the following information:
The site of integration of all IPSPs and EPSPs. Determines if the sum of IPSPs and EPSPs is sufficient for action potential to take place. |
Axon Hillock
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Name the structure based on the following information:
The site of ADP phosphorolation to synthesize ATP. |
Mitochondria
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Name the structure based on the following information:
contains enzymes that break down cellular waste in the cytoplasm |
Lysosomes
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Name the structure based on the following information:
The site at which vacuoles fuse to the neuronal membrane and release neurotransmitter into the synapse |
Terminal buttons
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Three components of cytoskeleton:
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Microtubules
Neurofilament Microfilament |
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Lobes of the brain: |
Frontal
Parietal Temporal Occipital |
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Which lobe does not have a pole? |
Parietal
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Large band of cortex adjacent to the length of the corpus callosum? |
Cingulate (Cingulate Cortex)
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Limbic system structures in the temporal lobes? 2 |
Amygdala; Hippocampus (Not always included by everyone's definition of the limbic system, but fairly common)
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Fissure that separates the two hemispheres: |
Longitudinal fissure
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
What is the name of a very deep crack between major portions of the brain? |
Fissure
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere: What is the name of noticable (but not dramatically pronounced) cracks between gyri in the brain?
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Sulcus (Plural: Sulci)
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
The name of a lump of tissue between sulci/fissures |
Gyrus (plural: Gyri)
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Sulcus separating the frontal from the parietal lobe |
Central sulcus
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Sulcus that separates the frontal from the temporal lobes (and sort of separates part of the temporal from part of the parietal) |
Lateral sulcus
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Sulcus that separates the parietal and occipital lobes. Can you see it on a dorsal, lateral, or dorsolateral view of the brain? |
Parieto-occipital sulcus
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
If you open up the lateral fissure, you will see |
The insula!
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Connects the two hemispheres of the brain via massive tracts of myelinated axons |
Corpus Callosum
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Sulcus that separates the two portions of the occipital lobe |
Calcarine sulcus
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Precentral gyrus includes what important area? |
Primary motor cortex
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Important structures in the cerebral hemisphere:
Postcentral gyrus includes what important area? |
Primary somatosensory cortex
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Every sense or system that has a "Primary" area likewise has an:
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association or secondary area.
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Important Subcortical structures: Name them 3
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Thalamus
Hypothalamus Basal Ganglia |
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Important Subcortical structures: Important relay station for sensory, motor and other information?
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Thalamus
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Important Subcortical structures: Important for flight, fight, feasting and intercourse-related-stuff-and-things. Sits inferior (ventral) to the thalamus. Innervates the pituitary gland. Involved in many aspects of homeostasis.
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Hypothalamus
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Important Subcortical structures: Involved in motor movement, procedural memory. Contains four major subportions.
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Basal Ganglia
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Important Subcortical structures: What are the four major subportions of the basal ganglia?
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Caudate
Putamen Globus Pallidus Substantia Nigra |
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Important Subcortical structures: The striatum is made up of?
2 |
The putamen and the caudate
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Midbrain includes: 2
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Tectum and tegmentum
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Tectum includes: 2
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Inferior and Superior Colliculi
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Function of the inferior colliculi?
_____ processing Certain _________ projections allow the allow the inferior colliculi to be involved in faster responding to _________stimuli than ________ processing. |
auditory processing. Certain direct projections (in part, to the spinal cord) allow the inferior colliculi to be involved in faster responding to auditory stimuli than conscious processing. (I.e., you respond to a startling noise faster than you consciously process it).
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Function of the superior colliculi?
__________ processing Certain ________ projections (in part, to the spinal cord) allow the superior colliculi to be involved in _________responding to ________ stimuli than ____________processing. |
Visual processing. Certain direct projections (in part, to the spinal cord) allow the superior colliculi to be involved in faster responding to visual stimuli than conscious processing. (I.e., you respond to a startling noise faster than you consciously process it).
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Two ways in which the hypothalamus communicates with the pituitary gland?
Via __________ directly on the _______ - through ___________ ____________ transmission |
Via hormonal secretion directly on the gland. -- Through synaptic (chemical) neuronal transmission.
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What is the master gland?
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Pituitary gland
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Limbic system includes? 4
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Amygdala
Hippocampus Fornix Cingulate (These are ill definied and different people disagree about what should and should not be included. Sam and I agreed this is what he tends to think of as the limbic system). |
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Function of the fornix
Communicates information from the ________ to the ___________ via the ___________ ___________ |
Communicates information from the hippocampus to the hypothalamus via the mammilary bodies.
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The mammillary bodies are (kind of) a part of this structure
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Sort of, part of the hypothalamus.
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Function of the amygdala?
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Emotions (broadly). Often fear and anxiety.
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function of the hippocampus 3
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memory formation, consolidation, retrieval.
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Functions of the cingulate Cortex
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regulation of emotion and cognition
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Function of the Reticular activating system:
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Attention, alterness, sleep-wake cycles. Damage can cause coma.
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Layer of membrane encasing the ventricles?
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Septum Pellucidum
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
How many layers are there? |
6
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
Name the first layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve? ______ layer d______ and a________ Connectivity between _________ ________ _______ Mostly ____________ communication |
Molecular layer -- Dendrites and axons -- Connectivity between various other layers. -- Mostly local communications
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
Name the Second layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve? _________ ___________ _________ layer ___________ cells - very __________ ___________ axonx ______________ communication Usually _________ input mor than ________ info |
External granule cell layer -- Granular cells. Very small. Short axons. -- Local communication. Usually receive input more than send information.
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
Name the third layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve? ___________ ____________ __________ __________ _______________ cells _______________ projections Communicates with other ______________ _________ areas _____________ not a ______________ to _____________ portion of the ________________ |
External pyramidal cell layer Pyramidal cells-- Long projections. Communicates with other far away areas. Sender. Not receiver. To another portion of the cortex.
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
Name the fourth layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve? ______________ ____________ __________ layer _________ cells - _________ ______________ from much _______________ projections Often _________ info ______________ from _______ areas often from the ____________ |
Internal granular cell layer -- Tiny cells. Dots --- Input from Much much longer projections. Often sensory information. Long projections from subcortical areas. Often from the thalamus
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
Name the Fifth layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve? ________ ____________ _________ _______________ cells __________ _________ projections __________ the cortex |
Internal pyramidal cells Pyramidal cells -- Very long projections. -- Long long projections outside the cortex.
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties:
Name the sixth layer, it's contents and the general functions each of the cells in this area serve? _____________ - _______________ _________ kinds of cells Does _________ things Projects back to the _________________ |
Multiform - polymorphic -- Lotsa kinda of cells. -- Does a Lotta things. But also projects back to the thalamus.
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The cortex has layers. Each layer has certain properties: What important concept might be important to know about cortical layers with respect to certain brain regions (i.e., what might be different between two areas?)?
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The relative size of a given layer will vary depending on the general function of that area. Inversely, the size of the layer can tell researchers about the types of information coming or going from a given area.
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What are the three components of the brainstem? 3
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Midbrain
Pons Medulla |
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Five functions of the brain stem?
Mediates Entry of info from What mediates what? Pathways that carry what where ______ _________ - where? receives what and regulates what? |
Tali told me this: (1) Mediates sensation and motor control of head, neck, face. Carried by 12 crainial nerves, 31 spinal nerves. (2) entry of information from specialized senses, heartbear, balance, taste. (3) Specialized neurons mediate parasympathetic reflexes (cardiac input, Peristalsis of the gut, and pupil constriction). (4) Pathways that carry sensory and motor information to other divisions of the CNS. (5) reticular formation (in the core of the brain stem) - receives sensory information and regulates altertness and arounsal.
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Substantia nigra is part of what subcortical structure? But is actually found in which brain stem structure?
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Basal Ganglia ; Midbrain
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Function of the midbrain:
Act as a _______ ________ for _________ and ____________ information Controls many important functions such as the __________ and ________ systems as well as _________ ___________ |
Acts as a sort of relay station for auditory and visual information.
controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well as eye movement. |
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CSF is synthesized at the:
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Choroid Plexus
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Choroid Plexus are comprised of:
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Epithelial Cells
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Choroid Plexus are found in? The largest collection of them are in the __________ ventricle(s)
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All of the ventricles. Lateral Ventricules
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CSF in the lateral ventricles progresses to the _______________ via the ______________ of _____________
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third ventricle ; Foramin of Monroe
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CSF in the 3rd ventricle progresses to the ______________ via the ______________ _____________
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4th ventricle; cerebral aqueduct
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CSF in the 4th ventricle leaves the ventricular system and proceeds to the ______________ via the _____________ of ____________ and ___________ of ____________
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(Meninges OR subarachnoid space) via the Foramina of Luschka and Foramen of Magendie.
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CSF is reabsorbed into ____________ at _________________
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the vascular system (through veins) at the Midsagittal sinus (I learned this as Superior sagittal sinus).
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Cells that facilitate the absorption of CSF into the blood stream are called:
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Arachnoid Granulations.
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Three layers of the meninges
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Dura Mater; arachnoid layer; pia mater
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Tough, leathery outer layer of meninges
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Dura Mater
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Softer inner layer of the meninges that follows the contours of cerebral gyri and sulci?
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Pia mater
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Axons are _______ ________ processes that _______ _______ ______ with other _________
____________ info Extend _________ from the cell body Carries _______ to ___________ ___________ |
long , thin processes that get in touch with other neurons
o Transmits information o Extends away from cell body o Carries APs to terminal buttons |
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Dendrites
___________ information from other ______ _________ Can ________ to __________ with many other __________ Can also be described as ___________ _____________ |
o Receives information from other nerve cells
Can branch to synapse with many many other axons. Also could be described as a long process. |
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Types of Neurons
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Unipolar -- Bipolar -- Multipolar -- Pseudounipolar
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Unipolar cells
3 |
o Most simple, have a single primary process
o Dendrite comes out of the same pole as axon o Very rare o Ex: found in ANS (autonomic nervous system? Can someone confirm?) |
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Bipolar cells
What does it look like dendrite goes axon goes |
o Oval-shaped cell body with 2 processes on opposite ends of the poles
Dendrite goes into the periphery Axon goes toward the center of the NS o Ex: sensory cells |
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• Multipolar
________ axon and _________ dendrite ______ and ____________ of ________ correlate with number of ___________ contacts that other _________ make onto them common? |
o Has a single axon and many dendrites coming out of the cell
o Number and extent of dendrites correlate with number of synaptic contacts that other neurons make onto them o Most common |
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Pseudounipolar cells
_______ out into ______ directions __________ axon and __________ dendrite Similar to |
o Branches out into 2 directions one axon and one dendrite
o Similar to a bipolar cell |
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o Parts of neuron that receive input
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Dendrite and cell body
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o Part of the neuron that transmits information
______ where integration where and what does it do |
Axon (at the presynaptic terminal)
Integration (meaning the summation of IPSPs and EPSPs) meets at the axon hillock, travels down only if it is large enough |
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Process through which DNA becomes a protein
________ in the ________ is coded into ________. _________ leaves the nucleus and travels to the __________ along the _____________________. __________ create the proteins by binding ________ _________ together based on the information contained in the ________. Proteins then move on to the __________ where they are modified (post-transcriptional modification). |
DNA in the nucleus is coded into mRNA. mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the Ribosomes along the Rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes create the proteins by binding amino acids together based on the information contained in the mRNA. Proteins then move on to the golgi where they are modified (post-transcriptional modification).
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Proteins and amino acids have what type of charge?
______ and that's why the _______ ________ _______ is ___________ How many of what are in there |
Negative. Hence the reason why neuronal resting potential is negative. There are TONS of proteins and amino acids in neurons.
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o Ribosomes
What travels here they do what to make what where do they get the information |
mRNA travels here. Ribosomes bind amino acids together to make proteins. This is based on the information contained in the mRNA.
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Cytoplasm
Free ______ and __________ Holds Extends to |
Free chemicals and proteins. Holds the organelles. Extends into the dendrites.
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Endoplasmic reticulum.
Where __________ __________ _________ is covered in _____________ |
Surrounds the nucleus. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered in ribosomes.
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Has _______ that travel to the _______ ___________ |
has proteins that travel to golgi apparatus
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Mitochondria
Main function How? |
Main function is the production of ATP (adenocine triphosphate; we use this for energy) which is produced through a process called oxidative phosphorolation of ADP (Adenocine diphosphate).
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Where does protein synthesis occur?
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In the Endoplasmic reticulum.
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• Neuronal cytoskeleton (three types)
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Microtubules; neurofilaments; microfilaments
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Microtubules
Runs down the _______ ________ of the ___________ Made of ___________ in a _________ ______ _________ structure made of _______ and ________ _________ Grows via _____________ when it stops growing it's __________ by ___________ Runs down the ________ What is used as tracks __________ __________ for _____________ |
Extends the full length of the neuron
Made of protofilaments in a tubular array Polar structure made of alpha and beta tubulins Grows via dimers. When it stops growing, it’s capped by tubulin Runs down the axon Proteins used as tracks Axonal transport for proteins |
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Motor proteins
do what What are they and what do they do |
Transport various cellular cargo (I believe this includes proteins and neurotransmitters).
Kinesine - Anterograde motor protein. Carries cargo toward the terminal button. Dynein - retrograde motor protein. carries cargo away from the terminal button toward the cell body. |
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Neurofilaments
Fill the ______ __________ gives it it's _______ and __________ |
Fill the cell body. Gives the cell body it's shape/structure. Very important! We would otherwise have weird glob-cells. I don't want weird glob cells. :(
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Microfilaments
similar to ____________ form a ________ network with a __________ number of ______-________ proteins Act as ____________ |
similar to neurofilaments. Form a dense network with a large number of actin-binding proteins. Act as tracks.
FROM ONLINE SOURCE: Microfilaments are solid rods made of a protein known as actin. When it is first produced by the cell, actin appears in a globular form (G-actin; see Figure 1). In microfilaments, however, which are also often referred to as actin filaments, long polymerized chains of the molecules are intertwined in a helix, creating a filamentous form of the protein (F-actin). All of the subunits that compose a microfilament are connected in such a way that they have the same orientation. Due to this fact, each microfilament exhibits polarity, the two ends of the filament being distinctly different. This polarity affects the growth rate of microfilaments, one end (termed the plus end) typically assembling and disassembling faster than the other (the minus end). (Source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/microfilaments/microfilaments.html) |
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Neuronal membrane potential refers tot he overall
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Refers to the overall (cumulative) charge of the neuron.
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Neuronal resting potential
_________mV Average of the __________ _________ _________ Why the charge |
-65mV. (I always learned -70mV; this is an average of common resting potentials and depending on what was sampled, the estimate could vary). It is important to know that this is NEGATIVE! Why? Mostly because of negatively charged proteins in the neuron.
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EPSP. What does it stand for? Describe the process?
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Stands for excitatory postsynpatic potential. Typically this means that Sodium (Na) has entered the cell (typically following the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter at the synapse). The cell becomes Depolarized (meaning the cell becomes less negative and moves toward positive charge). If the cell is depolarized enough (Threshold) at the axon hillock, action potential will occur.
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IPSP. What does it stand for? Describe the process?
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Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential. Typically, (Cl) will flow into the cell. This usually happens following the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter at the synapse). The cell becomes hyperpolarized (Meaning it becomes more negatively charged). This makes action potential LESS likely, hence why it is called inhibitory.
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action potential
generated by located at ___ or ________ Won't |
o Generated by a sudden Na influx through voltage-gated channels in the membrane
o Located at the initial segment, which has the lowest threshold for generating an AP o All or none o AP won’t decay as it travels along the axon to its target |
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• Glial cells 4
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o Oligodendrocytes (CNS); Schwann Cells (PNS); microglia; astrocytes
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Oligodendrocytes
Provides insulates |
• Provides segments of myelin to many different axons
• Insulates multiple axons |
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Schwann Cell
how many What does it do |
• One Schwann Cell provides one segment of myelin per axon
o Cell wraps itself and the cytoplasm is pushed out to the outer layer |
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o Astrocytes
______- like _________function They ______ when Picks up _____from the ______ ________ Takes up _____________ when sometimes have ______ processes some terminate in They might bring _________ in |
“star-like”
Supportive function They hypertrophy when there is damage Picks up K from the ion channels Takes up chemicals from the synapse released by neurons Sometimes replace damaged areas on the BBB Have long processes, some of them terminate in end-feet • End-feet may bring nutrients in |
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o Microglia
Mobilized when What are they and what to they produce Involved in If there is damage they do what |
Mobilized after injury/infection/disease
Immune cells, produce antibodies Involved in phagocytosis Damage in the NS they become enlarged and WBCs are also recruited |
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o Walls of the ventricles filled with
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ependymal cells.
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Chroid plexus is the ______ of ________ covered by _______ cells
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specialization of blood vessels, covered by ependymal cells.
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(Ion Channels) What types of gates do we have? 4
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Voltage-gated
ligand-gated phosphorylation gated stretch/pressure gated |
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Voltage-gated channels
Detect changes in _______ Respond to ________ _________ within the ____________ |
• Detects changes in membrane potential. Responds to specific charges within the membrane.
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Ligand-Gated channels
What is a ligand There is what for the ligand The ligand does what and then what happens |
• Ligand a chemical that enzymes work on (NT)
• There is a receptor for the ligand The ligand binds with the receptor and the channel opens in response. |
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Phosphorylation-gated channels
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when a phosphate group is added, the channel opens
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Stretch/pressure gated channels?
Found where Receives what as an NT What does stretch do _______ gated |
• Found in muscles
• Receive Ach as NT • Stretch carries info from spindle fibers about how much it’s been stretched • Mechanically gated |
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Ion channels
Use _________ transport they are ______ than pumps They ___________ require energy What happens when the channel opens |
Ion channels use passive transport
• They’re faster than pumps DO NOT require energy. Once the channel is opened, the ions flow along their concentration gradient, hence why it is called passive transport Ion channels are selective - They work for one type of ion, but not others. |
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o Three states of a channel (5.5)*
They can be _____ ______ or ________ Example |
They can be: Resting, open or inactivated. (Using voltage gated channels as an example) When resting, detection of action potential would open the channel -- When open, an action potential is active and ions are flowing -- When inactivated, the channel will not open even if action potential is detected. The is why refractory periods occur.
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Transporters and pumps.
They use __________ transport Must go through _______ changes They use________ to __________ ions ________ the ____________ gradient |
Pumps/transporters use active transport
• Must go through conformational changes • They use energy (ATP) to transport ions against their electrical/chemical gradients Slower and more expensive (in terms of resources) |
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What do pumps and channels have in common?
Similar ______ they are ___________ Channels can be _______ gates are ________ Channel that is ________ can be |
o Similar structure
o They are selective – they choose which ions that they will move o Channels can be open or closed – not only in one conformation o Gates are very sensitive o Channel that is structured o Can be plugged o molecule in the way |
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Na/K exchanger
how many Move what against what has What is inside and what is outside |
• 3 Na leave, 2 K enter
• Moves Na/K against their electrochemical gradients • Requires ATP (hydrolysis) • Has binding sites o Na/ATP inside o K outside |
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Ca pump
What does it do and why |
• Pumps calcium out for each ATP used. We can't let Calcium stay in the cell. It'll dieee. :(
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Cl pump
Uses ______ stored in the ______ of other ________ called Where |
• Use the energy stored in gradients of other ions (cotransporters). Pumps Chloride out of and into the cell? Can we check this??
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Which ion passively exits the cell? What is it's charge?
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Potassium +
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Why is it that ions are always in position, ready to flow into the cell when channels open?
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The neuron is negatively charged. extracellular, Positively charged ions line up along the cell membrane due to the attraction created by their opposing charges.
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Why can't all of the ions diffuse?
channels are ________ and the _______ ______ acts as a ________ between the __________ and __________ of the cell |
Channels are selective and the lipid bilayer acts as a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell.
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At resting potential, K channels are
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usually open, allowing potassium to leak out.
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When hyperpolarization occurs, this ion is entering the cell. What is that ions charge?
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what is Chloride? Negative.
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When depolarization occurs, this ion is entering the cell? What is that ions charge?
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Sodium (Na). Positive.
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When the axon hillock's integration of IPSPs and EPSPs determines that action potential should take place. This ion begins to move which direction and to what effect?
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Sodium surges into the cell and pushes the charge dramatically more positive.
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At the peak of an action potential (i.e., the charge inside the neuron is at it's most positive), This ion stops rushing into the cell and this ion begins rushing out.
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Sodium channels close and sodium stops rushing into the cell. Potassium begins to race out of the cell.
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After an action potential has occurred, how does the neuron return all of the proper ions to their proper place!
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Pumps! Mostly, sodium-potassium pump.
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Four properties of action potentials
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o Have a threshold for initiation
o All or none event o AP is conducted without decrement, has a self-generative feature that keeps the amplitude constant o AP is followed by a refractory period |
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• Similarities and differences b/t the two most common ion channels (Na and K)
2 similarities 2 differences |
o Similarities (in terms of AP)
• Both are sensitive to voltage (depolarization) • The larger the potential, the higher the probability that the channel will open o Differences Na channels open faster, you have the rising of the AP K channels don’t have a refractory period (Na does) |
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Properties of electrical synapses
Allows makes speed Sends What kinds of junctions Very ______ Connect how to what What uses these Current crosses the membrane through |
o Allows direct, rapid, synchronous passage of current
o Makes speed faster/instantaneous o Sends rapid depolarizing signals Gap junctions b/t the 2 terminals • Very small • Direct connect the cytoplasm of the 2 cells • Glial cells use these Current crosses the membrane through channels |
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• Properties of chemical synapses
how are they connected? What initiates what? The binding opens what and does what can produce Does what to neuronal signals |
o Synaptic cleft that separates presyn from postsyn terminal
o AP initiates the release of a NT and interacts with the receptor on the postsyn membrane o The binding opens ion channels hat initiate a charge in the postsyn membrane o Can produce more complex behaviors o Amplifies neuronal signals |
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Requirements for neurotransmitter release
Transmission occurs where What are precursors to NT's how Where are NT's found What channels are at the axonal ending What is triggered and what happens Causes what to happen how Where do they go What does it activate where? what does that lead to |
o Transmission occurs at the active zone
o Proteins are precursors to NTs (anterograde transport) o NTs found in vesicles o Ca channels are at axonal endings; when an AP is triggered Ca enters cell from voltage-gated Causes vesicles to use with presyn and release NTs via exocytosis goes into synaptic cleft activates receptors on the postsyn membrane, leading to opening/closing of ion channels |
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• Synaptic vesicles
Located where rise in what causes what What happens |
o Located in active zones of chemical synapses
o Rise in Ca causes vesicles to fuse with presyn terminal o One vesicle has several thousands of NTs that can open thousands of ion channels in the target cell |
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Two classes of receptors
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Ionotropic and metabotropic
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Ionotropic receptors
What kind of channel Mediates what Changes what how fast What kind of gating The NT opens the channel how What kind of SP What did we do What are the channels that open |
• Ligand-gated channel
• Mediates behaviors • Change the balance of charge across the neuron’s membrane quickly • Direct gating o NT opens the channel directly EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential) • We excited the cell o Most likely Na or K (ex: glutamate); Na channels will open |
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Metabotropic receptors
Moduale _______ NT activates what Produce what that do what How many - what are they called What kind of gating Interacts with |
• Modulate behaviors
• NT will activate proteins activate effector enzymes produce 2nd messengers (cAMP) that catalyze modifications of other proteins • 2 types o G protein-couples o Tyrosine kinase • Indirect gating o Interacts with other receptors that change the metabolism of the cell |
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• Structural differences b/t excitatory and inhibitory synapses
Excitatory are what They have what They are Have what kind of vesicles ______ synaptic cleft Larger postsynaptic _________ Prominent Contact what where |
o Type 1
Excitatory (glutamatergic) Larger active zones Asymmetric Have round synaptic vesicles Wide synaptic cleft Larger postsyn density Prominent presyn dense projections Contact spines on the dendrites o Type 2 Inhibitory (GABAergic) Contact cell body and dendritic shaft Oval or flattened shaped vesicles Modest basement membrane Small active zone Narrow postsyn cleft Less obvi dense projections |
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• Four criteria met by all NTs
Synthesized where Present where and what has to happen What does it mimic Specific mechanism for what What is that called |
o 1. Synthesized in the presynaptic neuron
o 2. Present in the terminal and has to be enough that it releases an AP o 3. When administered exogenously in reasonable concentrations it mimics the action of the endogenous transmitter o 4. Specific mechanism usu exists for removing the substance from the synaptic cleft Most common way to get rid of excess NT: REUPTAKE via presyn cell! |
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• Major excitatory and inhibitory NTs
2 |
o GABA inhibitory
o Glutamate excitatory |
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o ACh
What is it called Primarily Starts as a _______ __________ enzyme _____________ _____________ By product |
Acetylcholine
Primarily excitatory Starts as choline Rate-limiting specific enzyme required for the NT to be made • Choline aceytltransferase!! By-product: Acetyl Coenzyme A These are cholinergic!! |
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o Catecholamines
3 What has an enzyme that gets converted to what _______ back |
Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
• Tyrosine has an enzyme (tyrosine hydroxylase) that gets converted into L-DOPA • L-DOPA gets decarboxylated to yield dopamine and CO2 • Dopamine + dopamine B-hydroxylase norepinehprine • Norepinephrine + 5th enzyme epinephrine These all occur in steps! • Feedback! |
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o Serotonin
Made from __________ |
A.K.A. 5-HT
Made from tryptophan • And 2 enzymes: trp-hydroxylase and 5-hydroxytrypamine |
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How do humans acquire the necessary amino acids required for protein synthesis?
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Eatz proteinz. Num num num.
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o Glutamate
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Most frequently used at excitatory synapses throughout CNS
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o Glycine
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Major NT used by inhibitory interneurons
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o GABA
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Made from glutamate, catalyzed by glutamic acid decarboxylase
Inhibitory |
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• Termination of transmitter action
by _______ - what is that D_________ Only used by _________- ___________ What happens to Ach What happens to choline |
o Diffusion
Removes some fraction of all chemical messengers o Degradation Only used by cholinergic synapses Ach hits cleft and become hydrolyzed to choline and acetate (via acetylcholinterase) The choline is recaptured (no uptake for ACh); (Reuptake too?) |
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These act on opioid receptors
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Opiocortin, enkephalins, dynorphin, FMRFamide
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insula thought to play a role in
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Thought to have a role to play in the conscious processing of emotions. If Dr. G. said something different, please let me know.
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ponteine nucei
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movement and sensation from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
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Thalamus
Link in the pathway of _______ from ________ to ________ of the __________ _________ Interconnects teh ________ and _________ with regions of the _________ __________concerned with what |
Link in the pathway of sensory info from the periphery to sensory organs of the cerebral hemispheres
Interconnects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with regions of the cerebral cortex concerned with movement/cognition |
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Cerebellum
Where Important for Involved in |
o Lies over the pons
o Important for maintaining posture and coordinating head, eye, and arm movements o Involved in minute regulation of motor output and learning motor skills |
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Basal Ganglia
Control of |
Control of movement and aspects of motor learning
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Hypothalamus
Where Regulates what to where influences _______ through important to the |
Ventral to the thalamus
Regulates homeostasis and several reproductive behaviors • Ex: somatic growth, eating, drinking, Regulates the hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland Influences behavior through efferent/afferent connections with every region of the CNS Important of the motivational systems of the brain |
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o Medulla
regulates what early components that moderate 4 |
regulating BP and respiration• Early components that moderate taste, gearing, and maintenance of balance; control of neck and facial muscles
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o Pons
Relay info about _______ from _________ Ventral Dorsal |
relay info about movement and sensation from cerebral cortex to cerebellum
Ventral ponteine nucei (movement and sensation from cerebral cortex ro cerebellum Dorsal structures involved in respiration, taste, and sleep |
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o Midbrain
links for has components of the Gives rise to pathways that are connected to the |
links for the motor system (cerebellum, basal ganliga, cerebral hemispheres)
Has components of the auditory and visual systems Give rise to pathways that are connected to the extracellular muscles that control eye movements |
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Substantia nigra
regulates what |
regulates voluntary movements
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Peripheral nervous system is divided into
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Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
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Autonomic nervous system is divided into
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Sympathetic and parasympathetic
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Somatic nervous system
What three things have to do with the _______ |
muscles, skin, internal sensations that have to do with the body
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o Autonomic
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Visceral, automatic
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• Sympathetic
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Higher arousal (playing sports, fighting, etc.)
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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More active during resting states (Like lying on the beach, sleeping).
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Circulation of the spinal cord
What gives rise to what |
Vertebral arteries which give rise to the anterior spinal artery.
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Top of the basilar artery gives rise to
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The posterior cerebral artery
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posterior cerebral arteries supplies:
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(occipital, temporal), (I think it also helps supply the cerebellum and midbrain and hind brain. But I could be wrong).
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middle cerebral artery supplies:
6 |
!!! internal structures, striatum, anterior thalamus, portions of the parietal, temporal lobes and even a bit of the frontal lobes (broca's aphasia often caused by MCA infarct).
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Anterior cerebral artery supplies
3 |
part of the frontal lobes. inferior aspects of the frontal lobes. Orbital plane. Anterior portion (splenium) of the corpus callosum.
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Internal Carotid artery gives rise to:
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anterior and middle cerebral arteries. (Tali's notes say: comes in from foramen, penetrates the dura, and divides into anterior and middle cerebral arteries)
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o Recurrent artery of heubner
4 |
supplies deeper cerebrum and diencephalon (limbic structures, head od caudate, anterior limb of internal capsule) -- I think this is a branch of the MCA and I dunno that we need to know it in this detail.
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o Vertebral arteries
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Tali's notes say: come from subclavian arteries and enter cranium through foramen
They each give off an anterior spinal artery and posterior cerebellar artery go together to form basilar artery • They give off anterior inferior cerebellar artery and superior cerebellar artery • Also divides into 2 posterior cerebral arteries supply the inferior temporal and occipital lobes and posterior corpus callosum |
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Why is CSF so important?
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Bouyancy makes our brains weigh lots less!
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Types of information carried through the somatosensory system?
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Proprioception (joints/muscles); Touch (Skin); Nociception/pain (can be interoceptive and exteroceptive); temperature.
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What is one of the essential principles to understand with respect to a neuron's size:
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The larger the diameter, the thicker the axon and the faster the conduction. This also includes more myelination (since the myelin has to cover an extended area.
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Afferent (incomming) neurons from the PNS travel through the:
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The dorsal root ganglion.
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Motor neurons travel out of the spinal cord through the
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Ventral portion of the spinal cord.
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Dorsal root ganglion
What is it and where Carries info from and terminates where |
A cluster of cells that lies adjacent to the spinal cord.
Sensory input flows through here. Carries info from muscles and skin into the spinal cord and terminates in the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord |
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What are roots?
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When tons and tons of neurons are cascading into the spinal cord, it looks like roots. So they called it that.
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How many spinal nerves ya got? How many cranial nerves ya got?
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31; 12
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Each spinal nerve receives information from a segment of the body. What's this called?
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Dermatome!
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posterior column
important part of what pathway includes what structures |
important part of an ascending pathway including both the fasciculus gracilus and the faciculus cuneatus.
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Pain and temperature decussate when? Where? Why is it important that it decussates immediately? Where does the first order neuron terminate?
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Synapses immediately and decussates almost immediately upon entering the spinal cord (1 or 2 segments up). -- Info comes into spinal cord and it synapses in the gray matter
Important for reflexes, then it decussates Goes through the spinothalamic tract Terminates in the dorsal horn |
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Touch and proprioception decussate when? where? Then where does it go?
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Touch and proprioception decussate in the medule at the gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus. It is the second order neurons that decussation. It then travels to the lemniscus and eventually to the thalamus. From the thalamus it continues to travel to the primary somatosensory cortex (PostCentral Gyrus) and then to the Somatosensory association cortex.
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Which cranial nerves join the touch and proprioception nerves as they head toward the medula?
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o Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal (someone fact check me on this?). Maybe the vagus as well?
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Which cranial nerve carries sensory information from the visceral organs?
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Vagus nerve
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Touch and proprioception synapse where in the thalamus?
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Ventral posterior lateral nucleus of the thalamus.
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Pain and temperature synpases (after the medula)?
What is it important for |
In the dorsal anterior insular cortex. What did we say the insula was potentially important for? Conscious processing of emotions? Turns out that includes emotional information related to pain. In fact, the insula shows increased activation in anticipation of painful stimulus AND in empathic pain paradigms. How fudging cool is this stufz?!
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Where is the primary somatosensory cortex?
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Postcentral gyrus
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Where is the primary motor cortex?
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precentral gyrus
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Receptive fields
what happens what do they have defines the |
o A neuron is going to receive info from a certain area of the skin
o Will have an inhibitory or excitatory center o Defines the zone of tactile sensitivity |
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o Unimodal association area -
involved in the are only concerned with converges where |
involved in the early stages of sensory of sensory processing are only concerned with a single modality
Converges on multimodal association areas of the cortex concerned with combining sensory modalities |
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Multimodal association area
2 things |
o Important for 2 tasks
The production of a unified perception (like tactile) Representation of the perception in memory (remember how your grandmother's house smells on a warm spring day?) |
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• Complexity of information processed by various cortical areas. Describe the general principle/process
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o As you move from primary association multimodal, it gets more abstract
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rate-liming enzymes are enzymes in a neuron that are needed to make a _______________.
Each NT has one and then what |
neurotransmitter
each neurotransmitter has a rate-limiting enzyme, and if a cell has that enzyme, it will make the transmitter. i.e. if a cell has LDOPA, it is dopaminergic. LDOPA is the enzyme. |