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368 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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TCA side effects
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Anticholinergic effects
confusion/cognitive issues cardiovas sx. fine tremor fatique, drowsiness Skin-parathesia (sensation of tingling) Weight gain |
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MAOI side effects
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Anticholinergic effects
Blood issues -blood dsycrasia(blood d/o), Heart-hypertensive crisis, (stiff neck) tremor, dizziness Mood-agitation, confusion, Pain-headache, Skin- rash, edema, sleep- insomnia Weight gain |
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Serotonin / SSRI side effects
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tremor
G/I-Nausea, Diarrhea, constipation, vomiting Mood-anxiety, Sex- dsyfunc Urine- increased urination (polyuria) appitite loss |
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Serotonin syndrome
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agitation, tremor, unsteady gait, dizziness, diarrhea, sweating, chills, cognitive, neuromuscular automomic
also Cardiac arrhythmia, Nystagmus (involuntary eye movement) Changes in mental status (irritable, confused, delirium) Pain-headache (E-137) neuromuscular |
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Lithum side effects
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Cognitive func impairment
fine hand tremor, tremor, G/I-Nausea, appetite loss, Diarrhea, Energy-restless, fatigue Increased urination (polyuria) Weight gain |
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lithum toxicity 1
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Ataxia, diarrhea, drowsiness,
coarse tremor, confusion |
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carbamazepine side effects 1
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Ataxia, increased risk of agrnanulostosis, nausea, dizziness, skin rash, weight loss/ anorexia, visual disturbance
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Barbiturates side effects
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Ataxic sx (slurred speech, dizziness)
drowsiness, lethargy, nystagmus |
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Benzo side effects (less common)
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Antrograde amnesia
Blood dyscrasia Mood-irritable, hostile, excitible,aggitation, depressed dysoriented/confused Skin rash Sex-dysfunc Sleep- reduced REM Weight-gain/ incres. appt. |
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amphetamine side effect
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Cardiac arrhythmia, palpitations,
tremor, Mood-restless sleep- insomnia Weight- poor apetite |
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methylphenidate side effect
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tachycardia
G/I-abdominal pain, Mood-dysphoria (anxiety, depression, euphoria and sadness sleep- insomnia Weight- poor apetite |
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Atypical antipsychotic
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Anticholinergic effects (ABCD's), lower seizure threshold, sedation, less EPS effects(Tartive dys), agrandulocytosis and NMS
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Resperidone
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Weight gain and sexual dysfunction, delayed on set, rarely causes NMS- what type of drug is this?
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Clozapine
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likely to alleviate symptoms of depression and hostility, less likely to cause tartive dys, blocks seritonin and some dopmine receptors, can cause agranulocytosis (prior to this could be bone marrow suppression). Sedation is common as class of drug it is associated with. Causes more anticholinergic effect than Cholorpromizine, but less likely to produce Extra paramital -movement disorders. Name the class hint it was the 1st of this drug dev. in this class.
AKA- Clozaril, Azaleptin, Leponex, Fazaclo, Froidir Denzapine, |
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typical antipsychotics-1
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haloperidol, flupentixol, perphenazine
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anergia
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negitive sx and refers to reduced activity
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impotence
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Can be caused by diabetes mellitus, antipsychotic, and antidepressant drugs and liver and kidney disease
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D2 receptors
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New antipsychotics have lower affinity for these
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Antipsychotic and tics
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80% effective but about 50% stop taking Haloperidol or similar drug due to intolerable side effects
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valproate/divalproex or carbomazepine
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Drugs for bipolar d/o
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phenelzine
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MAOI med
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NMS-all sx
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Muscle rigidity, hyperthermia, and stupor (core sx) others maybe painful joins, mutism, tachycardia, urinary retnetion
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lithium toxicity Sx
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nausea and vomiting , loss of coordination and seizures
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TCA likely to give positive response
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middle to late insomnia, wieghtloss, insidious onset of sx
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TCA
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associated with Cognitive imparments
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SSRI
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Can worsen sx of insomnia and anxiety
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Palmor
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Nortriptyline a TCA can cause sedation
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neuropathic pain med
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increases levels of both seritonin and norepinephrine - Amitriptypine
also has analgesic properties- can be give for shingles outbreak |
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sympathomimetic syndr.
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OD or long term cocaine/amphet use
hypertention, tachycardia, hyperthermia, psycmotor agitation and aggresion. |
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cholinergic crisis
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caused by excessive amojnt of ACh at the neuromuscular junc- sweating, flaxxiid paralysis, respiratiory failure
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hypertensive crisis
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Headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting sweating.
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Metabolic Encephalopathy
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cause of deliruim and may result form kidney or liver failure, diabetes mellitus, hypo or hypertention, vitamin deficiency, electolyte imbalane, severe dehydration
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Cushing syndrome
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metabolic disorder caused by hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex resulting in excessive production of glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol sx: psychosis, mood lability, obesity (upper body), weakness, hirsuitism, hypertension, mild acne, facial puffiness (moon-shaped appearance), hyperglycemia, weakness, thin, and easily bruised skin with stria (stretch marks), and osteoporosis
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Anticholinergic effects
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anorexia, blurry vision, constipation/confusion/dry mouth, sedation/stasis of urine/sexual dys
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Carbamazine side effets (core)
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dizziness, ataxia, visual disturbance, nausea, rash
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MAOI side common
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orthostatic hypotension, in somnia, edema, blurred vision, sex dysfunc, weigh gain, and tremor
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beta blocker propranolol side effects
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shortness of breath, increased dreaming, nausea, diarrhea and bradycardia
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naltreoxone (blocks craving for alcohol)
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abdominal cramping, nausea, insomnia, nervousness, and headache
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hypertension-highest rate of
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African Amer, Women, Older
(esp AA women over 60) |
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Amphetamine Withdrawal
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dysphoric mood, vivid dreams, insomnia, increased appitite
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Alcohol Withdrawal
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hand tremor, insomnia, hallucinations, grand mal siezures
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Alcohol Intoxication
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Incoodination, nystagmus, impaired memory, mood lability
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Opioid Withdrawal
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dysphoric mood, restlessness, insomnia, fever
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hyperglycimia sx Type 2 diabetes acute
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substantial mood and cognitive changes (information process, working mem)
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lithium Potential side effect
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hypothirodism
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MAOI side effect rare
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paresthesias, myoclonus, and muscle pain
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MAOI and SSRI together
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gives you SSRI syndrome
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paresthesias
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sensation of "pins and needles"
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myoclonus
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a clonic spasm of a muscle or muscle group
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lithium Common initial side effects of
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nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain
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Typical Antipsychotic side effect # 2
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Anticholinergic*
Extrapyramidal** Thorazine-can cause agranulocytosis & kill you Haldol-worst side effects |
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Atypical Antipsychotic side effect # 2
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Anticholinergic*
Lower seizure threshold Sedation Extrapyramidal** much less common, except akathesia Less likely to cause tardive dyskinesia |
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Typical Antipsychotics
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phenothiazines
chlorpromazine= Thorazine fluphenazines=Prolixin, Permitil butyrophenones haloperidol = Haldol thioxanthenes thiothixene = Narvane |
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Atypical Antipsychotics
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Atypical:
dibenzazepines clozapine=Clorazil benzisoxazole risperidone=Risperdal thienobenzodiazepene olanzapine=Zyprexa fibenzothiazepine quetiapine=Seraquel |
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Typical Antipsychotic withdrawl (abupt) effects
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insomnia, nightmares and other sleep disturb
cholingeric rebound- ab crampiong, diarrhea, salvation |
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Neuroleptic Mal. core Sx
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Muscle rididity, hyperthermia, stupor
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TCA OD sx
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ataxia, cardiac arrhythmia, and delirium
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5-HT toxicity syndrome
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headache, tremor, confusion
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hypothyroidism sx
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depressive sx, mental slowing, memory imparment also sensitivity to cold, unexplained weight gain, Difficulties concentrating, forgetfulness, constipation
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hypoglycemia sx
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intense hunger, dizziness, and depression / anxiety nervousness, tremor, (also unproved anger, epiosodic confusion, and lethargy or fatigue. weakness, sometimes trouble speaking. sweating, impaired concentration, confusion, clumsy or jerky movements, weakness and in extreme cases convulsions or loss of conscious
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hyperglycemia sx
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associated with mood and cognitive changes
weight loss, headache, thirst, difficulties concentrating, fatigue |
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Caffine intoxication
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Restlessness, psychomotor agitation, flushed face, diurisis, rambling speech, and muscle twitching
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Hyperthyrodism sx
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insomnia, irritability, mood lability, decreased libido, (or emotional labilty, unrealistic fears and doubts, and impaired concentration) anxiety, heart palpitations, wieght loss, reduced ability to pay attention, intolerence to heat
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PSYCHIATRIC DRUGS
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May be classified in various ways, including chemical structure, clinical effect, and pharmacologic mechanism.
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CLASSIFICATION BY CLINICAL EFFECTS
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Classification system that clinicians may find most practical and useful. It groups the drugs under the effects they appear to exert on the symptoms of certain disorders; however, most often, more than one category of disorders are targeted by the same class of medications. For example, antidepressants are widely used in the treatment of several conditions, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, & OCD.
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ANTIDEPRESSANTS
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SSRI, SNRI, TCA, MAOI
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Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRI)
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work to increase both serotonergic and noradrenergic activity. SNRI's include Effexor-venlafaxine & Cymbalta-duloxetine. SNRI's are used to treat anxiety disorders and neuropathic pain.
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Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCA)
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Thought to exert a general inhibitory effect on the reuptake of all monoamine neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Due to their many side effects and dietary restrictions, TCA's are typically only prescribed if SSRI's are ineffective. Commonly TCAs include Tofranil-imipramine & Anafranil-clomipramine.
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Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOI)
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Inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase, which breaks down monoamines and thereby increases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine levels in the brain. Effective in the treatment of atypical depression. Because they cause more side effects and have more drug and dietary interactions than SSRIs and TCAs, they are typically reserved as last-option antidepressants. MAOIs brand-names include: Nardil-phenelzine, Parnate-tranylcypromine, and Emsam-selegiline.
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ANTI-OBSESSIONAL
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This is a useful sub-category of the main antidepressant list, emphasized because of their effects on obsessive thoughts via serotonergic action. It is mostly comprised of SSRIs and includes Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Luvox, Celexa, Lexapro, and also the TCA Anafrenil
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MOOD STABILIZERS and ANTI-CONVULSANTS
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This is a class of drugs commonly used to treat bipolar disorder. Anti-convulsants were traditionally manufactured for the treatment of epileptic seizures, but subsequently found useful also as mood stabilizers. Examples include: Eskalith and Lithonate (lithium carbonate), Symbiax (a synthesis of olanzapine and fluoxetine), Tegretol (carbamazepine), Trileptal (oxcarbazepine), Depakote (divalproex), Lamictal (lamotrigine), Topomax (topiramate), and Gabirtril (tiagabine).
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PSYCHOSTIMULANTS
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Widely used in the treatment of attention deficit disorders, this list includes Ritalin and Concerta (methylphenidate), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine), and Adderall (d- and l- amphetamine).
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ANTIPSYCHOTICS
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These medications are mainly used to treat psychotic illness; they can also be used as adjuncts for depressive disorders when appropriate. This class can be further divided in low and high potency, as well as typical (traditional) and atypical (newer).
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Low Potency antipsychotics
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Low Potency only means that a higher dosage is needed for the desired effect, and does not have to do with side effects and sedative power. Low Potency antipsychotics are known to have significant side effects and sedative power.
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Low Potency medications include:
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Thorazine (chlorpromazine), Mellaril (thioridazine), Clozaril (Clozapine), and Seroquil (quietapine)
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High Potency medications include:
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Loxitane (loxapine), Stelazine (trifluoperazine), Prolixin (fluphenazine), Navane (thiothixene), Haldol (Haloperidol), Risperdal (risperidone), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Abilify (aripiprazole)
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ANTI-ANXIETY
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This class of medications can be further divide into Benzodiazepines and Other Anti-Anxiety Agents. They are widely used to treat both anxiety and mood disorders, and can be adjuncts in antipsychotic regimes.
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Benzodiazepines
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Valium (diazepam), Librium (chlordiazepoxide), Klonopin (clonazepam), and Ativan (lorazepan)
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Other anti-anxiety agents
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BuSpar (buspirone), Neurontin (gabapentin), and the beta-blocker Inderol (propanolol)
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HYPNOTICS
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This class includes mostly "sleepers," such as Dalmane (flurazepam), Doral (quazepam), Restoril (temazepan), the newer Ambien (zolpidem), Sonata (zaleplan), and Lunesta (eszoplclone), as well as the antihistaminic Benadryl (diphenhydramine) for its sedative side effects.
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NATURAL/HERBAL MEDICATIONS
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St. John's Wort: an herbal product shown to treat depression & anxiety
SAM-e :shown effective for depression Omega-3: shown effective for depression & bipolar disorder |
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Drug Formulation
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The pharmaceutical process by which certain chemical substances, including the active agent, are synthesized to produce the final drug.
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Drug Description
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Mainly the listing of chemical ingredients, with their dosages and formulas, that make up a specific drug.
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How do tricyclics work?
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They block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine at the synapse
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Tricyclics are best for treating
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vegetative symptoms i.e., appetite and sleep issues, psychomotor retardation. TCAs are used to treat depression, anxiety, OCD, & neuropathic pain. may be helpful for agoraphobia
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side effects of tricyclics
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dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, blurred vision, and nasal congestion
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overdose of tricyclics
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cardiac arrythmia, sudden death
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How do SSRI's work?
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increase the availability of serotonin at the synapse by inhibiting reuptake
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side effects of SSRI's
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G.I. problems, sexual dysfunction, headaches, motor restlessness
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MAOI's are best for treating
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atypical depression: increased, hypersomnia, mood reactivity, rejection sensitivity, accompanying anxiety
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Side effects of MAOI's
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hypotension, dizziness, dry mouth, nausea, weight gain, blurred vision Most serious is a hypertensive crisis if taken with other drugs or food with the amino-acid tyramine
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Treatment of choice for bipolar
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lithium
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How does lithium work?
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It may reduce post-synaptic responsivity to dopamine and norepinephrine
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Side effects of lithium
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gastric distress, weight gain, tremor, fatigue, confusion 35% will have tremor in fingers. It can be toxic or deadly.
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Tegretol/carbamazepine
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effective for maina, especially rapid cycling; faster onset than lithium
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Side effects of Tegretol/carbamazepine
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lethargy, tremor, ataxia, visual disturbances
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How do antipsychotics work?
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They block dopamine receptors in the brain
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What are side effects of antipsychotics
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anticholinergic: dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia, gastric. Extrapyramidal: parkinsonism, akathisia, dystonia, tardive dyskinesia
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akathisia
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motor restlessness such as fidgeting, rocking, or pacing due to the neuromuscular or neurologic adverse effects associated with the use of antipsychotics
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dystonia
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"a syndrome of sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures." Differences in the extent & severity of muscle and frequency of symptom involvement range from intermittent contraction limited to a single body region to generalized dystonia involving the limbs & axial muscles. Features such as age of onset and presumed etiology play a tremendous role in prognosis & treatment. A younger age of onset associated with a more generalized and severe course in primary dystonias.
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ataxia
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Inability to coordinate muscle activity during voluntary movements, resulting in shaky/tremor-like movements
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BENZODIAZEPINES
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Anti anxiety drugs which include Diazepam (Valium), alprozolam (Xanax), Clonozepam (Klonopin), Lorazepam (Ativan) they are used to treat GAD, panic, insomnia, alcohol withdrawal, epilepsy
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How do benzodiazepines work
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it enhances GABA which inhibits the CNS
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Benzodiazepine withdrawal
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is similar to alcohol withdrawal syndrome and barbiturate withdrawal syndrome and can in severe cases provoke life threatening withdrawal symptoms such as seizures; protracted withdrawal symptoms include anxiety, irritability, insomnia and sensory disturbances.
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Pharmacotherapeutics
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The general study of the therapeutic uses of drugs.
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Bioavailability
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The portion of a drug that reaches the blood, or the physiological availability of a given amount of a drug, versus its chemical potency. It is a main principle of pharmacokinetics.
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Pharmacokinetics (PK)
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Is both a biochemical process and a branch of pharmacology; as a process, it can be defined as, "the change over time of the blood levels of a drug following administration." As a field of study, it is concerned with "how the body absorbs, distributes, breaks down, & eliminate drugs. PK involves the use and application of chemical & mathematical formulas.
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Purposes of Pharmacokinetics (PK)
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1. study the course of a drug over time, in relation to its absorption by the body, distribution, metabolism and excretion.
2. study how these four processes relate to the time course and the intensity of both therapeutic and side effects of the drug. |
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Difference between Pharmacokinetics (PK) & Pharmacodynamics (PD)
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PK entails what the body does to the drug, while PD is what the drug does to the body
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Pharmacometrics (PM)
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Involves quantitative analysis and interpretation in relation to the effects of drugs in preclinical and clinical trials. Quantitative analysis and interpretation based on PK and PD
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anticholinergic side effects
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dry mouth, urinary retention, constipation, and blurred vision.
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The "catecholamine hypothesis" predicts that drugs which _______________ will alleviate depression.
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maintain or increase norepinephrine levels
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Wellbutrin
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NDRI
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athetosis
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refers to slow, uncoordinated, and involuntary movements of the extremities.
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akathisia
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an inability to sit or stand motionless along with a feeling of restlessness.
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akinesia
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Complete or almost complete loss of movement; associated with several disorders including stroke and Parkinson's disease
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classical neurotransmitters
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acetylcholine (Ach), catecholamines, serotonin, amino acids
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PSYCHIATRIC DRUGS
|
May be classified in various ways, including chemical structure, clinical effect, and pharmacologic mechanism.
|
|
|
CLASSIFICATION BY CLINICAL EFFECTS
|
Classification system that clinicians may find most practical and useful. It groups the drugs under the effects they appear to exert on the symptoms of certain disorders; however, most often, more than one category of disorders are targeted by the same class of medications. For example, antidepressants are widely used in the treatment of several conditions, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, & OCD.
|
|
|
ANTIDEPRESSANTS
|
SSRI, SNRI, TCA, MAOI
|
|
|
Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRI)
|
work to increase both serotonergic and noradrenergic activity. SNRI's include Effexor-venlafaxine & Cymbalta-duloxetine. SNRI's are used to treat anxiety disorders and neuropathic pain.
|
|
|
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCA)
|
Thought to exert a general inhibitory effect on the reuptake of all monoamine neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Due to their many side effects and dietary restrictions, TCA's are typically only prescribed if SSRI's are ineffective. Commonly TCAs include Tofranil-imipramine & Anafranil-clomipramine.
|
|
|
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOI)
|
Inhibit the activity of monoamine oxidase, which breaks down monoamines and thereby increases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine levels in the brain. Effective in the treatment of atypical depression. Because they cause more side effects and have more drug and dietary interactions than SSRIs and TCAs, they are typically reserved as last-option antidepressants. MAOIs brand-names include: Nardil-phenelzine, Parnate-tranylcypromine, and Emsam-selegiline.
|
|
|
ANTI-OBSESSIONAL
|
This is a useful sub-category of the main antidepressant list, emphasized because of their effects on obsessive thoughts via serotonergic action. It is mostly comprised of SSRIs and includes Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Luvox, Celexa, Lexapro, and also the TCA Anafrenil
|
|
|
MOOD STABILIZERS and ANTI-CONVULSANTS
|
This is a class of drugs commonly used to treat bipolar disorder. Anti-convulsants were traditionally manufactured for the treatment of epileptic seizures, but subsequently found useful also as mood stabilizers. Examples include: Eskalith and Lithonate (lithium carbonate), Symbiax (a synthesis of olanzapine and fluoxetine), Tegretol (carbamazepine), Trileptal (oxcarbazepine), Depakote (divalproex), Lamictal (lamotrigine), Topomax (topiramate), and Gabirtril (tiagabine).
|
|
|
PSYCHOSTIMULANTS
|
Widely used in the treatment of attention deficit disorders, this list includes Ritalin and Concerta (methylphenidate), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine), and Adderall (d- and l- amphetamine).
|
|
|
ANTIPSYCHOTICS
|
These medications are mainly used to treat psychotic illness; they can also be used as adjuncts for depressive disorders when appropriate. This class can be further divided in low and high potency, as well as typical (traditional) and atypical (newer).
|
|
|
Low Potency antipsychotics
|
Low Potency only means that a higher dosage is needed for the desired effect, and does not have to do with side effects and sedative power. Low Potency antipsychotics are known to have significant side effects and sedative power.
|
|
|
Low Potency medications include:
|
Thorazine (chlorpromazine), Mellaril (thioridazine), Clozaril (Clozapine), and Seroquil (quietapine)
|
|
|
High Potency medications include:
|
Loxitane (loxapine), Stelazine (trifluoperazine), Prolixin (fluphenazine), Navane (thiothixene), Haldol (Haloperidol), Risperdal (risperidone), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Abilify (aripiprazole)
|
|
|
ANTI-ANXIETY
|
This class of medications can be further divide into Benzodiazepines and Other Anti-Anxiety Agents. They are widely used to treat both anxiety and mood disorders, and can be adjuncts in antipsychotic regimes.
|
|
|
Benzodiazepines
|
Valium (diazepam), Librium (chlordiazepoxide), Klonopin (clonazepam), and Ativan (lorazepan)
|
|
|
Other anti-anxiety agents
|
BuSpar (buspirone), Neurontin (gabapentin), and the beta-blocker Inderol (propanolol)
|
|
|
HYPNOTICS
|
This class includes mostly "sleepers," such as Dalmane (flurazepam), Doral (quazepam), Restoril (temazepan), the newer Ambien (zolpidem), Sonata (zaleplan), and Lunesta (eszoplclone), as well as the antihistaminic Benadryl (diphenhydramine) for its sedative side effects.
|
|
|
NATURAL/HERBAL MEDICATIONS
|
St. John's Wort: an herbal product shown to treat depression & anxiety
SAM-e :shown effective for depression Omega-3: shown effective for depression & bipolar disorder |
|
|
Drug Formulation
|
The pharmaceutical process by which certain chemical substances, including the active agent, are synthesized to produce the final drug.
|
|
|
Drug Description
|
Mainly the listing of chemical ingredients, with their dosages and formulas, that make up a specific drug.
|
|
|
How do tricyclics work?
|
They block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine at the synapse
|
|
|
Tricyclics are best for treating
|
vegetative symptoms i.e., appetite and sleep issues, psychomotor retardation. TCAs are used to treat depression, anxiety, OCD, & neuropathic pain. may be helpful for agoraphobia
|
|
|
side effects of tricyclics
|
dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, blurred vision, and nasal congestion
|
|
|
overdose of tricyclics
|
cardiac arrythmia, sudden death
|
|
|
How do SSRI's work?
|
increase the availability of serotonin at the synapse by inhibiting reuptake
|
|
|
side effects of SSRI's
|
G.I. problems, sexual dysfunction, headaches, motor restlessness
|
|
|
MAOI's are best for treating
|
atypical depression: increased, hypersomnia, mood reactivity, rejection sensitivity, accompanying anxiety
|
|
|
Side effects of MAOI's
|
hypotension, dizziness, dry mouth, nausea, weight gain, blurred vision Most serious is a hypertensive crisis if taken with other drugs or food with the amino-acid tyramine
|
|
|
Treatment of choice for bipolar
|
lithium
|
|
|
How does lithium work?
|
It may reduce post-synaptic responsivity to dopamine and norepinephrine
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Side effects of lithium
|
gastric distress, weight gain, tremor, fatigue, confusion 35% will have tremor in fingers. It can be toxic or deadly.
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Tegretol/carbamazepine
|
effective for maina, especially rapid cycling; faster onset than lithium
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Side effects of Tegretol/carbamazepine
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lethargy, tremor, ataxia, visual disturbances
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How do antipsychotics work?
|
They block dopamine receptors in the brain
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What are side effects of antipsychotics
|
anticholinergic: dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia, gastric Extrapyramidal: parkinsonism, akathisia, dystonia, tardive dyskinesia
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akathisia
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motor restlessness such as fidgeting, rocking, or pacing due to the neuromuscular or neurologic adverse effects associated with the use of antipsychotics
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dystonia
|
"a syndrome of sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures." Differences in the extent & severity of muscle and frequency of symptom involvement range from intermittent contraction limited to a single body region to generalized dystonia involving the limbs & axial muscles. Features such as age of onset and presumed etiology play a tremendous role in prognosis & treatment. A younger age of onset associated with a more generalized and severe course in primary dystonias.
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ataxia
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Inability to coordinate muscle activity during voluntary movements, resulting in shaky/tremor-like movements
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BENZODIAZEPINES
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Anti anxiety drugs which include Diazepam (Valium), alprozolam (Xanax), Clonozepam (Klonopin), Lorazepam (Ativan) they are used to treat GAD, panic, insomnia, alcohol withdrawal, epilepsy
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How do benzodiazepines work
|
it enhances GABA which inhibits the CNS
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Benzodiazepine withdrawal
|
is similar to alcohol withdrawal syndrome and barbiturate withdrawal syndrome and can in severe cases provoke life threatening withdrawal symptoms such as seizures; protracted withdrawal symptoms include anxiety, irritability, insomnia and sensory disturbances.
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Pharmacotherapeutics
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The general study of the therapeutic uses of drugs.
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Bioavailability
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The portion of a drug that reaches the blood, or the physiological availability of a given amount of a drug, versus its chemical potency. It is a main principle of pharmacokinetics.
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Pharmacokinetics (PK)
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Is both a biochemical process and a branch of pharmacology; as a process, it can be defined as, "the change over time of the blood levels of a drug following administration." As a field of study, it is concerned with "how the body absorbs, distributes, breaks down, & eliminate drugs. PK involves the use and application of chemical & mathematical formulas.
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Purposes of Pharmacokinetics (PK)
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1. study the course of a drug over time, in relation to its absorption by the body, distribution, metabolism and excretion.
2. study how these four processes relate to the time course and the intensity of both therapeutic and side effects of the drug. |
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Difference between Pharmacokinetics (PK) & Pharmacodynamics (PD)
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PK entails what the body does to the drug, while PD is what the drug does to the body
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Pharmacometrics (PM)
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Involves quantitative analysis and interpretation in relation to the effects of drugs in preclinical and clinical trials. Quantitative analysis and interpretation based on PK and PD
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anticholinergic side effects
|
dry mouth, urinary retention, constipation, and blurred vision.
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The "catecholamine hypothesis" predicts that drugs which _______________ will alleviate depression.
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maintain or increase norepinephrine levels
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Wellbutrin
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NDRI
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athetosis
|
refers to slow, uncoordinated, and involuntary movements of the extremities.
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akathisia
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an inability to sit or stand motionless along with a feeling of restlessness.
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akinesia
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Complete or almost complete loss of movement; associated with several disorders including stroke and Parkinson's disease
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classical neurotransmitters
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acetylcholine (Ach), catecholamines, serotonin, amino acids.
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amphetamine psychosis
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A delusional and psychotic state, closely resembling acute schizophrenia, that is brought on by repeated use of high doses of amphetamine
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anxiety disorder
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Any of a class of psychological disorders that include recurrent panic states, generalized persistent anxiety disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorders
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anxiolytics
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A class of substances that are used to combat anxiety. Examples include alcohol, opiates, barbiturates, and the benzodiazepines
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atypical neuroleptics
|
A class of antischizophrenic drugs that have actions other than the dopamine D2 receptor antagonism that characterizes the typical neuroleptics
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benzodiazepines
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A class of antianxiety drugs that bind with high affinity to receptor molecules in the central nervous system. One example is diazepam (Valium)
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bipolar disorder
|
Also called manic-depressive illness. A psychiatric disorder characterized by periods of depression that alternate with excessive, expansive moods
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bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
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Mad cow disease, a disorder caused by improperly formed prion proteins, leading to dementia and death
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chlorpromazine
|
An antipsychotic drug, one of the class of phenothiazines
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clozapine
|
An atypical neuroleptic
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cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
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Psychotherapy aimed at correcting negative thinking and improving interpersonal relationships
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co-morbid
|
Referring to the tendency of certain diseases or disorders to occur together in individuals
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concordant
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Referring to any trait that is seen in both individuals of a pair of twins
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Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
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A brain disorder in humans, leading to dementia and death, that is caused by improperly folded prion proteins; the human equivalent of mad cow disease
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Cushing’s syndrome
|
A condition in which levels of adrenal glucocorticoids are abnormally high
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deep brain stimulation
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Mild electrical stimulation through an electrode that is surgically implanted deep in the brain
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delusion
|
A false belief strongly held in spite of contrary evidence
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depression
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A psychiatric condition characterized by such symptoms as an unhappy mood; loss of interests, energy, and appetite; and difficulty concentrating
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dexamethasone suppression test
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A test of pituitary-adrenal function in which the subject is given dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid hormone, which should cause a decline in the production of adrenal corticosteroids
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discordant
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Referring to any trait that is seen in only one individual of a pair of twins
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dissociative thinking
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A condition, seen in schizophrenia, that is characterized by disturbances of thought and difficulty relating events properly
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dizygotic
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Referring to twins derived from separate eggs (fraternal twins). Such twins are no more closely related genetically than are other full siblings
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dopamine hypothesis
|
The hypothesis that schizophrenia results from either excessive levels of synaptic dopamine or excessive postsynaptic sensitivity to dopamine
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dyskinesia
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Difficulty or distortion in voluntary movement
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electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
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A last-resort treatment for intractable depression in which a strong electrical current is passed through the brain, causing a seizure
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epidemiology
|
The statistical study of patterns of disease in a population
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fear conditioning
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A form of learning in which fear comes to be associated with a previously neutral stimulus
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glutamate hypothesis
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The hypothesis that schizophrenia may be caused, in part, by understimulation of glutamate receptors
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hypofrontality hypothesis
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The hypothesis that schizophrenia may reflect underactivation of the frontal lobes
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learned helplessness
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A learning paradigm in which individuals are subjected to inescapable, unpleasant conditions
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lithium
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An element that, administered to patients, often relieves the symptoms of bipolar disorder
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lobotomy
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The detachment of a portion of the frontal lobe from the rest of the brain, once used as a treatment for schizophrenia and many other ailments
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monoamine oxidase (MAO)
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An enzyme that breaks down and thereby inactivates monoamine transmitters
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monozygotic
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Referring to twins derived from a single fertilized egg (identical twins). Such individuals have the same genotype
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negative symptom
|
In psychiatry, a symptom that reflects insufficient functioning. Examples include emotional and social withdrawal, blunted affect, and slowness and impoverishment of thought and speech
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neuroleptics or antipsychotics
|
A class of drugs that alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia, typically by blocking dopamine receptors
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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
|
A syndrome in which the affected individual engages in recurring, repetitive acts that are carried out without rhyme, reason, or the ability to stop
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phencyclidine (PCP)
|
Also called angel dust. An anesthetic agent that is also a psychedelic drug. PCP makes many people feel dissociated from themselves and their environment
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phenothiazines
|
A class of antipsychotic drugs that reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia
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phobic disorder
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An intense, irrational fear that becomes centered on a specific object, activity, or situation that a person feels compelled to avoid
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positive symptom
|
In psychiatry, an abnormal state. Examples include hallucinations, delusions, and excited motor behavior
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postpartum depression
|
A bout of depression that afflicts a woman either immediately before or after giving birth
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posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
|
Formerly called combat fatigue, war neurosis, or shell shock. A disorder in which memories of an unpleasant episode repeatedly plague the victim
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prion
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A protein that can become improperly folded and thereby can induce other proteins to follow suit, leading to long protein chains that impair neural function
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psychosurgery
|
Surgery in which brain lesions are produced to modify severe psychiatric disorders
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psychotomimetic
|
A drug that induces a state resembling schizophrenia
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reserpine
|
A drug that causes the depletion of monoamines and can lead to depression
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schizophrenia
|
A severe psychopathology characterized by negative symptoms such as emotional withdrawal and impoverished thought, and by positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions
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seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
|
A depression putatively brought about by the short days of winter
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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)
|
A drug that blocks the reuptake of transmitter at serotonergic synapses; commonly used to treat depression
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supersensitivity psychosis
|
An exaggerated psychosis that may emerge when doses of antipsychotic medication are reduced, probably as a consequence of the up-regulation of receptors that occurred during drug treatment
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tardive dyskinesia
|
A disorder characterized by involuntary movements, especially involving the face, mouth, lips, and tongue; related to prolonged use of antipsychotic drugs, such as chlorpromazine
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Tourette's syndrome
|
A heightened sensitivity to tactile, auditory, and visual stimuli that may be accompanied by the buildup of an urge to emit verbal or phonic tics
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typical neuroleptics
|
A major class of antischizophrenic drugs that share an antagonist activity at dopamine D2 receptors
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unipolar depression
|
Depression that alternates with normal emotional states
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adaptation stage
|
The second stage in the stress response, including successful activation of the appropriate response systems and the reestablishment of homeostatic balance
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alarm reaction
|
The initial response to stress
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amygdala
|
A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe
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antibody
|
Also called immunoglobulin. A large protein that recognizes and permanently binds to particular shapes, normally as part of the immune system attack on foreign particles
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B lymphocyte
|
Also called B cell. An immune system cell, formed in the bone marrow (hence the B), that mediates humoral immunity
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Bell’s palsy
|
A disorder, usually caused by viral infection, in which the facial nerve on one side stops conducting action potentials, resulting in paralysis on one side of the face
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brain self-stimulation
|
The process in which animals will work to provide electrical stimulation to particular brain sites, presumably because the experience is very rewarding
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cytokine
|
A protein that induces the proliferation of other cells, as in the immune system
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decorticate rage
|
Also called sham rage. Sudden intense rage characterized by actions (such as snarling and biting in dogs) that lack clear direction
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|
emotional dyscontrol syndrome
|
A condition consisting of temporal lobe disorders that may underlie some forms of human violence
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|
evolutionary psychology
|
A field devoted to asking how natural selection has shaped behavior in humans and other animals
|
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|
exhaustion stage
|
A stage in the response to stress that is caused by prolonged or frequently repeated stress and is characterized by increased susceptibility to disease
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health psychology
|
Also called behavioral medicine. A field that studies psychological influences on health-related processes, such as why people become ill or how they remain healthy
|
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individual response stereotypy
|
The tendency of individuals to show the same response pattern to particular situations throughout their life span
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intermale aggression
|
Aggression between males of the same species
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|
Klüver-Bucy syndrome
|
A condition, brought about by bilateral amygdala damage, that is characterized by dramatic emotional changes including reduction in fear and anxiety
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limbic system
|
A loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network. These nuclei are implicated in emotions
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medial forebrain bundle
|
A collection of axons traveling in the midline region of the forebrain
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|
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Papez circuit
|
A group of brain regions within the limbic system
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|
phagocyte
|
An immune system cell that engulfs invading molecules or microbes
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polygraph
|
Popularly known as a lie detector. A device that measures several bodily responses, such as heart rate and blood pressure
|
|
|
psychoneuroimmunology
|
The study of the immune system and its interaction with the nervous system and behavior
|
|
|
psychopath
|
An individual incapable of experiencing remorse psychosomatic medicine A field of study that emphasizes the role of psychological factors in disease
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|
|
stress immunization
|
The concept that mild stress early in life makes an individual better able to handle stress later in life
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|
stress
|
Any circumstance that upsets homeostatic balance
|
|
|
T lymphocyte
|
Also called T cell. An immune system cell, formed in the thymus (hence the T), that attacks foreign microbes or tissue; “killer cell.” acetylcholine (ACh) A neurotransmitter produced and released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons by motoneurons, and by neurons throughout the brain
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adenosine
|
In the context of neural transmission, a neuromodulator that alters synaptic activity
|
|
|
agonist
|
A molecule, usually a drug, that binds a receptor molecule and initiates a response like that of another molecule, usually a neurotransmitter
|
|
|
allopregnanolone
|
A naturally occurring steroid that modulates GABA receptor activity in much the same way that benzodiazepine anxiolytics do
|
|
|
amine neurotransmitter
|
A neurotransmitter based on modifications of a single amino acid nucleus. Examples include acetylcholine, serotonin, or dopamine
|
|
|
amino acid neurotransmitter
|
A neurotransmitter that is itself an amino acid. Examples include GABA, glycine, or glutamate
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|
|
amphetamine
|
A molecule that resembles the structure of the catecholamine transmitters and enhances their activity
|
|
|
analgesic
|
Referring to painkilling properties
|
|
|
anandamide
|
An endogenous substance that binds the cannabinoid receptor molecule
|
|
|
antagonist
|
A molecule, usually a drug, that interferes with or prevents the action of a transmitter
|
|
|
antidepressants
|
A class of drugs that relieve the symptoms of depression
|
|
|
antipsychotics
|
A class of drugs that alleviate schizophrenia
|
|
|
anxiolytics
|
A class of substances that are used to combat anxiety
|
|
|
aspartate
|
An amino acid transmitter that is excitatory at many synapses
|
|
|
atypical neuroleptics
|
A class of anti-schizophrenic drugs that have actions other than the dopamine D2 receptor antagonism that characterizes the typical neuroleptics
|
|
|
autoreceptor
|
A receptor for a synaptic transmitter that is located in the presynaptic membrane and tells the axon terminal how much transmitter has been released
|
|
|
benzodiazepine agonists
|
A class of antianxiety drugs that bind to sites on GABAA receptors
|
|
|
binding affinity
|
Also called simply affinity. The propensity of molecules of a drug (or other ligand) to bind to receptors
|
|
|
bioavailable
|
Referring to a substance, usually a drug, that is present in the body in a form that is able to interact with physiological mechanisms
|
|
|
biotransformation
|
The process in which enzymes convert a drug into a metabolite that is itself active, possibly in ways that are substantially different from the actions of the original substance
|
|
|
blood-brain barrier
|
The mechanisms that make the movement of substances from blood vessels into brain cells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs, thus affording the brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in the blood
|
|
|
caffeine
|
A stimulant compound found in coffee, cacao, and other plants
|
|
|
catecholamines
|
A class of monoamines that serve as neurotransmitters, including dopamine and norepinephrine
|
|
|
cholinergic
|
Referring to cells that use acetylcholine as their synaptic transmitter
|
|
|
cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART)
|
A peptide produced in the brain when an animal is injected with either cocaine or amphetamine. It is also associated with the appetite control circuitry of the hypothalamus
|
|
|
cocaine
|
A drug of abuse, derived from the coca plant, that acts by potentiating catecholamine stimulation
|
|
|
co-localization
|
Also called co-release. Here, the appearance of more than one neurotransmitter in a given presynaptic terminal
|
|
|
competitive ligand
|
A substance that directly competes with the endogenous ligand for the same binding site on a receptor molecule
|
|
|
cross-tolerance
|
A condition in which the development of tolerance for one drug causes an individual to develop tolerance for another drug
|
|
|
cue-induced drug use
|
An increased likelihood to use a drug (especially an addictive drug) because of the presence of environmental stimuli that were present during previous use of the same drug
|
|
|
degradation
|
The chemical breakdown of a neurotransmitter into inactive metabolites
|
|
|
dependence
|
Also called addiction. The strong desire to self-administer a drug of abuse
|
|
|
depressants
|
A class of drugs that act to reduce neural activity
|
|
|
dissociative drug
|
A type of drug that produces a dreamlike state in which consciousness is partly separated from sensory inputs
|
|
|
dopamine (DA)
|
A monoamine transmitter found in the midbrain—especially the substantia nigra—and basal forebrain
|
|
|
dose-response curve (DRC)
|
A formal plot of a drug’s effects (on the y-axis) versus the dose given (on the x-axis)
|
|
|
down-regulation
|
A compensatory decrease in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron
|
|
|
dual dependence
|
Dependence for emergent drug effects that occur only when two drugs are taken simultaneously
|
|
|
dynorphins
|
One of three kinds of endogenous opioids
|
|
|
dysphoria
|
Unpleasant feelings; the opposite of euphoria
|
|
|
efficacy
|
Also called intrinsic activity. The extent to which a drug activates a response when it binds to a receptor
|
|
|
endocannabinoid
|
An endogenous ligand of cannabinoid receptors; thus, an analog of marijuana that is produced by the brain
|
|
|
endogenous opioids
|
A family of peptide transmitters that have been called the body’s own narcotics. The three kinds are enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins
|
|
|
endogenous
|
Produced inside the body
|
|
|
endorphins
|
One of three kinds of endogenous opioids
|
|
|
enkephalins
|
One of three kinds of endogenous opioids
|
|
|
excitotoxicity
|
The property by which neurons die when overstimulated, as with large amounts of glutamate
|
|
|
exogenous
|
Arising from outside the body
|
|
|
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
|
A disorder, including intellectual disability and characteristic facial anomalies, that affects children exposed to too much alcohol (through maternal ingestion) during fetal development
|
|
|
functional tolerance
|
Decreased responding to a drug after repeated exposures, generally as a consequence of up- or down-regulation of receptors
|
|
|
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
|
A widely distributed amino acid transmitter, and the main inhibitory transmitter in the mammalian nervous system
|
|
|
gas neurotransmitter
|
A soluble gas, such as nitric oxide or carbon monoxide, that is produced and released by a neuron to alter the functioning of another neuron
|
|
|
glutamate
|
An amino acid transmitter, the most common excitatory transmitter
|
|
|
glutamatergic
|
Referring to cells that use glutamate as their synaptic transmitter
|
|
|
glycine
|
An amino acid transmitter, often inhibitory
|
|
|
hallucinogens
|
A class of drugs that alter sensory perception and produce peculiar experiences
|
|
|
heroin
|
Diacetylmorphine; an artificially modified, very potent form of morphine
|
|
|
indoleamines
|
A class of monoamines that serve as neurotransmitters, including serotonin and melatonin
|
|
|
insula
|
A region of cortex lying below the surface, within the lateral sulcus, of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes
|
|
|
inverse agonist
|
A substance that binds to a receptor and causes it to do the opposite of what the naturally occurring transmitter does
|
|
|
ionotropic receptor
|
A receptor protein that includes an ion channel that is opened when the receptor is bound by an agonist
|
|
|
ketamine
|
A dissociative anesthetic drug, similar to PCP, that acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist
|
|
|
khat
|
Also spelled qat. An African shrub that, when chewed, acts as a stimulant
|
|
|
ligand
|
A substance that binds to receptor molecules, such as those at the surface of the cell
|
|
|
local anesthetic
|
A drug, such as procaine or lidocaine, that blocks sodium channels to stop neural transmission in pain fibers
|
|
|
locus coeruleus
|
Literally, “blue spot.” A small nucleus in the brainstem whose neurons produce norepinephrine and modulate large areas of the forebrain
|
|
|
LSD
|
Also called acid. Lysergic acid diethylamide, a hallucinogenic drug
|
|
|
marijuana
|
A dried preparation of the Cannabis sativa plant, usually smoked to obtain THC
|
|
|
MDMA
|
Also called Ecstasy. A drug of abuse, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
|
|
|
mesolimbocortical pathway
|
A set of dopaminergic axons arising in the midbrain and innervating the limbic system and cortex
|
|
|
mesostriatal pathway
|
A set of dopaminergic axons arising from the midbrain and innervating the basal ganglia, including those from the substantia nigra to the striatum
|
|
|
metabolic tolerance
|
The form of drug tolerance that arises when repeated exposure to the drug causes the metabolic machinery of the body to become more efficient at clearing the drug
|
|
|
metabotropic receptor
|
A receptor protein that does not contain an ion channel but may, when activated, use a G protein system to open a nearby ion channel
|
|
|
modulatory site
|
A portion of a receptor that, when bound by a compound, alters the receptor’s response to its transmitter
|
|
|
monoamine oxidase (MAO)
|
An enzyme that breaks down and thereby inactivates monoamine transmitters
|
|
|
morphine
|
An opiate compound derived from the poppy flower
|
|
|
muscarinic
|
Referring to cholinergic receptors that respond to the chemical muscarine as well as to acetylcholine
|
|
|
neurochemistry
|
The branch of neuroscience concerned with the fundamental chemical composition and processes of the nervous system
|
|
|
neuroleptics
|
A class of antipsychotic drugs, traditionally dopamine receptor blockers
|
|
|
neuromodulator
|
A substance that influences the activity of synaptic transmitters
|
|
|
neuropharmacology
|
Also called psychopharmacology. The scientific field concerned with the discovery and study of compounds that selectively affect the functioning of the nervous system
|
|
|
neurosteroids
|
Steroids produced in the brain
|
|
|
nicotine
|
A compound found in plants, including tobacco, that acts as an agonist on a large class of cholinergic receptors
|
|
|
nicotinic
|
Referring to cholinergic receptors that respond to nicotine as well as to acetylcholine
|
|
|
nitric oxide (NO)
|
A soluble gas that serves as a retrograde gas neurotransmitter in the nervous system
|
|
|
noncompetitive ligand
|
A drug that affects a transmitter receptor while binding at a site other than that bound by the endogenous ligand
|
|
|
noradrenergic
|
Referring to systems using norepinephrine (noradrenaline) as a transmitter
|
|
|
norepinephrine (NE)
|
Also called noradrenaline. A neurotransmitter produced and released by sympathetic postganglionic neurons to accelerate organ activity. Also produced in the brainstem and found in projections throughout the brain
|
|
|
nucleus accumbens
|
A region of the forebrain that receives dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area
|
|
|
opioid peptide
|
A type of endogenous peptide that mimics the effects of morphine in binding to opioid receptors and producing marked analgesia and reward
|
|
|
opioid receptor
|
A receptor that responds to endogenous and/or exogenous opiates
|
|
|
opium
|
A heterogeneous extract of the seedpod juice of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum
|
|
|
orphan receptor
|
Any receptor for which no endogenous ligand has yet been discovered
|
|
|
partial agonist or partial antagonist
|
A drug that, when bound to a receptor, has less effect than the endogenous ligand would
|
|
|
peptide neurotransmitter (neuropeptide)
|
A neurotransmitter consisting of a short chain of amino acids
|
|
|
periaqueductal gray
|
The neuronal body–rich region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct that connects the third and fourth ventricles; involved in pain perception
|
|
|
pharmacodynamics
|
Collective name for the factors that affect the relationship between a drug and its target receptors, such as affinity and efficacy
|
|
|
pharmacokinetics
|
Collective name for all the factors that affect the movement of a drug into, through, and out of the body
|
|
|
phencyclidine (PCP)
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Also called angel dust. An anesthetic agent that is also a psychedelic drug
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raphe nuclei
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A string of nuclei in the midline of the midbrain and brainstem that contain most of the serotonergic neurons of the brain
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receptor subtype
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Any type of receptor having functional characteristics that distinguish it from other types of receptors for the same neurotransmitter
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receptor
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Also called receptor molecule. A protein that captures and reacts to molecules of a neurotransmitter or hormone
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retrograde transmitter
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A neurotransmitter that diffuses from the postsynaptic neuron back to the presynaptic neuron
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glossary['reuptake'] = "The process by which released synaptic transmitter molecules are taken up and reused by the presynaptic neuron, thus stopping synaptic activity."; terms[terms.length] = 'reuptake'
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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) A drug that blocks the reuptake of transmitter at serotonergic synapses
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sensitization
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A process in which the body shows an enhanced response to a given drug after repeated doses
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serotonergic
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Referring to neurons that use serotonin as their synaptic transmitter
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serotonin (5-HT)
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A synaptic transmitter that is produced in the raphe nuclei and is active in structures throughout the cerebral hemispheres
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striatum
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The caudate nucleus and putamen together
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substance abuse
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A maladaptive pattern of substance use that has lasted more than a month but does not fully meet the criteria for dependence
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substantia nigra
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Literally, “black spot.” A group of pigmented neurons in the midbrain that provides dopaminergic projections to areas of the forebrain, especially the basal ganglia
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Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
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The major active ingredient in marijuana
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tolerance
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A condition in which, with repeated exposure to a drug, an individual becomes less responsive to a constant dose
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transporters
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Specialized receptors in the presynaptic membrane that recognize neurotransmitter molecules and return to the presynaptic neuron for reuse
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tricyclic antidepressants
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A class of drugs that act by increasing the synaptic accumulation of serotonin and norepinephrine
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typical neuroleptics
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A major class of antischizophrenic drugs that share antagonist activity at dopamine D2 receptors
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up-regulation
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A compensatory increase in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron
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ventral tegmental area (VTA)
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A portion of the midbrain that projects dopaminergic fibers to the nucleus accumbens
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withdrawal symptom
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An uncomfortable symptom that arises when a person stops taking a drug that he or she has used frequently, especially at high doses
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