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536 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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basal ganglia
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Structures located deep in the brain that play an important role in the initiation of movements, sensorimotor learning, and motoric expressions of emotional states. Includes the CAUDATE NUCLEUS, PUTAMEN, GLOBUS PALLIDUS, and SUBSTANTIA NIGRA. Cell death in the substantia nigra contributes to Parkinson's disease; also implicated in Tourette Syndrome, Autism, OCD.
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brain stem
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The part of the brain that controls functions including heart rate, breathing, and body temperature; includes MIDBRAIN, PONS, and MEDULLA OBLONGATA. Connects to spinal cord.
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caudate nucleus
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Brain structure; part of the BASAL GANGLIA that controls motor behavior and is implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's, Huntington Disease, ADHD.
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cerebellum
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The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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cerebral cortex
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Comprised of 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
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cingulate gyrus
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satisfaction center of brain; eating & sex
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hippocampus
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part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
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hypothalamus
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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
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inferior colliculus
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part of the brain in charge of the response to auditory stimulus
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locus coeruleus
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located in reticular formation, involved in attention, arousal, sleep cycles; associated with depression and panic disorder
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lymbic system
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- places a role in emotion and memory; contains the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cyrus
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pituitary
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gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system
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pons & medulla
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"switchboard" regulating the flow of informatinon between the brain and the rest of the body. Controls facial expression, sleep, respiration, movement, cardiovascular, blood pressure, breathing, etc.
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reticular activating system (RAS)
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filter for incoming sensory information; related to attention, arousal, awaking/sleeping cycle
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substantia nigra
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A structure in the Basal Ganglia, involved in movement; produces Dopamine so if injured can cause Parkinsons
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thalamus
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the structure of the brain that relays messages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex; e.g. the "sensory switchboard"
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Wernicke's area
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controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
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Peripheral Nervous System
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division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into SOMATIC (voluntary) nervous system and AUTONOMIC (involuntary) nervous system
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Parasympathetic
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A branch of the autonomic nervous system. This system serves as a counterbalance for the sympathetic nerves. Therefore, it causes the heart rate to SLOW DOWN, lower the blood pressure, constrict eye pupils, and increase digestion.
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Sympathetic
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that AROUSES the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (e.g. Fight/Flight)
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CNS Development (5 stages)
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1) Proliferation, 2) Migration, 3) Differentiation, 4) Myelination, 5) Synaptogenesis
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3 main structures of the Hindbrain
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Medulla, Cerebellum, Pons
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Medulla
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part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
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Cerebellum
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the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance; if smaller size then possible AUTISM; damage = ATAXIA (loss of balance, slurred speech, severe tremors)
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Pons
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literally means "bridge"; it connects the cerebrum with the cerebellum and brainstem; is involved in regulating body movement, attention, sleep, and alertness
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The 4 subcortical structures of the FOREBRAIN
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1) Thalamus, 2) Hypothalamus, 3) Basal Ganglia, 4) Limbic System
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
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A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night. "circadian rhythms"
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Frontal Lobe components
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motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas
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Primary Motor Cortex
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The section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement.
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Premotor Cortex
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responsible for storing memory for skilled motor movement such as piano playing; Broca's Area (speech production).
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Prefrontal Cortex
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Specific area of the brain responsible for attention, motor inhibition, strategy formation and evaluation of risk taking and rule breaking; executive -higher level cognitions.
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Somatosensory Cortex
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Area of the parietal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position (proprioception)
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Parietal Lobe
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associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli (e.g. pain, touch)
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Temporal Lobe
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The part of the brain that processes information from the senses of HEARING, SMELL, and TASTE, and other sensory and motor tasks; plays a role in LTM encoding/retrieval; lesions can cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
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Auditory Cortex
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The area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information. Damage can result in auditory agnosia and auditory hallucinations.
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Occipital Lobe
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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual cortex, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
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visual cortex
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located in back of brain in occipital lobes, main info-processing center for visual info
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Temporal Lobe (memory func)
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encoding, storage and retrieval of LT declarative memories
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cerebellum [functions]
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balance and posture: refined movemnt, coordination, posture, attentional shifting, sensory motor learning
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medulla [functions]
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regulates vital functions: basic reflexes (e.g. coughing) & vital processes (e.g. heartrate)flow of info from spinal cord to brain
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pons [functions]
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connects 2 halves of cerebellum integration of movement from two sides of brain
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reticular formation [location, functions]
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midbrain respiration, coughing, REM sleep
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reticular activating system [functions]
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arousal, sleep (part. sleep-wake cycle), sensory screening (Mom who wakes for baby)
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thalamus [functions]
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relay station of sensory info (except olfaction)
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hypothalamus [functions]
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most of body needs; helps maintain homeostasis
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suprachiasmatic nucleus (SN) [functions]
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sleep-wake cycle, circadian rhythms
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basal ganglia [functions]
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motor-related
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limbic system [functions]
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mediation of emotion
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amygdala [functions/memory]
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motivation and emotion; attaches emotion to memory; recall of emotionally-charged events
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hippocampus [memory functions]
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consolidation of long-term declarative memory
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primary motor cortex [functions]
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control of voluntary movement
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Broca's area [location, function]
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premotor cortex; speech production
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prefrontal cortex [function]
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executive functioning
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parietal lobe [function]
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senses
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somatosensory cortex [function]
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governs senses (except aud. and vis.)
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temporal lobe [memory function; sense]
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encoding, retrieval, storage of long-term declarative memories; auditory
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Wernicke's area [location, function]
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left temporal lobe; comprehension of language
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occipital lobe [location, function]
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visual cortex; vision
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sympathetic {correlated with}
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arousal
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parasympathetic {correlated with}
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calming down
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hindbrain contains
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brain stem & cerebellum
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brain stem contains
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pons & medulla
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midbrain contains
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reticular formation
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forebrain cortical structures
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frontal, parietal, temporal & occipital lobes
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frontal lobe cortices
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primary motor, pre-motor, prefrontal
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primary motor cortex functions
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voluntary movemt, humunculis; when damaged reslts in flaccid hemoplegia & loss of reflexes
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flaccid hemoplegia def.
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loss of muscle tone
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prefrontal cortex [functions]
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exec fnctioning, mem, emotion
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prefrontal cortex {correlated with}
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ADHD, Schizophr, pseudo depres & psychopathy, age-related cogn decline
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parietal lobe [functions]
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pain, temp, gustation, proprioception
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temporal lobe [structure and functions]
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auditory cortex, and memory related stuff
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auditory cortex [functions]
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mediates auditory sensation and perception
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temporal lobe [memory]
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encoding, retrieval, storage of memory
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Occipital lobe [structure]
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visual cortex
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visual cortex [functions]
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mediates vision, perception, recognition and memory
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subcortical structures/systems (4)
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limbic system, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus
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limbic system structures (2)
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hippocampus, amygdala
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hippocampus [functions]
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(in temporal lobe), consolidation of long-term declarative or explicit memory, learning and memory, spatial, visual, verbal info, cogn maps
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damage to hippocampus {correlated with}
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Kluver-Busie syndrome
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amydala [memory functions]
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implicit emotional memory, motivation, olfactory memory
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basal ganglia [functions]
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caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra (Park.'s), planning, orgnizing, sensory motor learning, coordinating movement, stereotyped species- specific stereotyped expressions (smiling, etc.)
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thalamus [functions]
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relay station for sensory info (except olfaction); motor, language, memory
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low thiamine {correlated with}
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in temporal lobe leads to Korsikoff syndrome [drinking too much alcohol at the relay station]
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hypothalamus [functions]
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(connected directly to brain stem, the basics) hunger, sex, sleep, thirst, body temp, movement, emotional reaction, homeostasis, influences ANS & pituitary and endrocrine glands
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superchiasmic nucleus [location, functions]
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in hypothalamus; circadian rhythm, a lot of sleep stuff (connects to the RAS)
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long-term memory [structures] (4)
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prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe, thalamus (relay station), hippocampus
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Brainstem
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The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brianstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
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Medulla
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The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
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Reticular formation
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A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
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Thalamus
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The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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Cerebellum
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The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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Broca's area
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controls language expression -- an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
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Wernicke's area
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Controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
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corpus callosum
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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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limbic system
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neural system that sits between the brain's older parts and its cerebral hemisphere. its hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland
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amygdala
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two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system that's linked to emotion
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hypothalamus
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neural structure lying below the thalamus that directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking and body temperature. it helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward
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cerebral cortex
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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; it's the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
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glial cells
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cells in the nervous center that support, nourish, and protect neurons
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frontal lobes
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part of the cerebral cortex directly behind the forehead; used in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
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parietal lobes
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part of the cerebral cortex at the top and rear of the head; it receives sensory input for touch and body position
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occipital lobes
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part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
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temporal lobes
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part of the cerebral cortex around each ear that includes the auditory areas that receive information mainly from the opposite ear
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motor cortex
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area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement
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sensory cortex
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area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
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nervous system
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the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
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central nervous system (CNS)
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the brain and spinal cord.
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
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nerves
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bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
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somatic nervous system
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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
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sympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
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parasympathetic nervous system
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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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acetylcholine (Ach)
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neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, & memory; also involved in REM, sleep/wake cycle. Undersupply of production causes Alzheimer's.
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agonist
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enhances effect
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amino acids
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GABA, Glycine, & Glutamate
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amygdala
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a part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
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antagonist
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inhibits effect
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dopamine
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neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of it linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
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enkephalins & endorphins
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endogenous opioids; regulate stress and pain
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GABA & glycine
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have calming effect; this neurotransmitter is a powerful inhibitory; when LOW - high anxiety, epileptic seizures
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Gate control theory
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The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; it proposes the nervous system can process only a certain amt of info at one time.
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glutamate
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major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; most common neurotransmitter; abnormal levels found in schizophrenia
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norepinephrine
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a neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action; depression - low; manic - high
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serotonin
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A neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders.
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2 Types of Cholinergic (Ach) cells
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1) Nicotinic - excitatory and enhances alertness, 2) Muscarinic - inhibitory; found in smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands
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Catecholamines
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Involved with personality, mood, memory, & sleep. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline); Epinephrine (adrenaline); Dopamine.
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Serotonin (5-HT) regulates...
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[is an inhibitory neurotransmitter] mood, hunger,temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression.
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Endorphins
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"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
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biological psychology
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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.
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neuron
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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
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sensory neurons
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neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
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motor neurons
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neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
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interneurons
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neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
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dentrite
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the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
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axon
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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
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myelin sheath
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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
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action potential
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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
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threshold
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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
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synapse
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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
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neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
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reuptake
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a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
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endorphins
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"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
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reflex
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a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
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endocrine system
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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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hormones
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chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
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adrenal glands
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a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
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pituitary gland
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the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
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Anatomy of the eye
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Light waves enter eye & pass through cornea, pupil, & lens, then received by the retina
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Cornea
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Transparent covering in the front of the eye
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Pupil
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opening with the colored part (iris). It opens to regulate the amount of entering light.
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Lens
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This focuses the light waves on the retina
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Retina
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This comprises the inner lining of the eyeball
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Rods
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Sensitive to degrees of brightness. They sense stimuli in low levels of light; are located at the periphery of the retina
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Cones
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For seeing color. They function only in light. They cluster around the center of the retina
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1. Rods and cones synapse with...
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2. Bipolar Cells
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2. Bipolar cells synapse with...
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3. Ganglion cells
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3. Ganglion cells form bundles called...
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4. optic nerves
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4. Optic nerves carry ...
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nerve impulses from the retina to the brain
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Blind spot
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where the optic nerve leaves the retina
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Describe optic nerve fibers.
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The optic nerve contains 2 bundles of fibers. The inner bundle goes to the opposite side of the brain as the outer bundle. The left field signals go to the right and the right field signals go to the left.
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1. Vibrations enter through...
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2. the auditory canal and ear drum.
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2. What is the Eardrum?
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A membrane that vibrates as a function of sound waves.
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2. Vibrations on the eardrum are amplified by...
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3. Three ossicle bones
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Vibrations are transmitted to...
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4. the oval window.
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4. The oval window puts pressure on...
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5. liquid of the inner ear, cochlea.
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5. Pressure on liquid of the inner ear causes...
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6. movement of the hair cells.
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Hair cells are...
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auditory receptors.
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range of audible frequencies
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20-20,000 cycles per second (CPS)
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amplitude
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determines loudness
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pain threshold of loudness-amplitude
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120 decibels
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timbre
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complexity of sound waves
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auditory localization
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the ability to orient towards direction of sound. It is present at birth and declines 1 to 4 months. It re-emerges and is fully developed at 1 year.
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somesthesis
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The faculty of bodily perception; sensory systems associated with the body; includes skin senses and proprioception and the internal organs. Includes: Touch, Body Position, Temperature, & Pain
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Pain sensitivity is affected by subjective variables which include...
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Attention, motivation, and suggestion
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Pain is an interaction between...
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psychological & physiological mechanisms.
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Smell runs directly to the
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limbic system
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Sense of smell
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Most primitive sense
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visual agnosia
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characterized by an inability to name an object while being able to demonstrate its use or matching it to similar objects. It is often caused by a stroke involving the posterior cerebral artery.
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aperceptive agnosia
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A person cannot identify a familiar object visually but can identify it kinesthetically when it is placed in his hand. It is believed to be caused by lesions in the visual association cortex, which is located in the occipital lobe.
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Synesthesia
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Refers to a sensation that occurs in one sense modality when another modality has been stimulated - e.g., perceiving auditory stimuli as color.
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Achromatopsia
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A congenital deficit in the perception of color.
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Handedness development
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While hand preference typically emerges around age 2, it only becomes firmly established around age 7 to 8.
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Nervous system composed of what?
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Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
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What makes up the CNS?
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Brain and Spinal Cord
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Brain composed of what 3 parts?
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1. primitive core - sleeping & breathing 2. limbic system - basic drives (hunger/thirst) and emotions (rage/fear/pleasure) 3. cerebral cortex or cerebrum - higher functions
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Peripheral Nervous System
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Somatic and Autonomic NS
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Somatic Nervous System
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controls skeletal muscles; voluntary movement; info from senses
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Autonomic Nervous System
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"auto" or involuntary activity i.e. BP, heartbeat. Autonomic arousal correlated with changes in emotionality Measured by EKG and GS (galvanic skin response)
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Autonomic Nervous System divided into what?
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Sympathectic - "fight or flight"; Parasympathetic - relaxation, conservation
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basal ganglia
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Structures located deep in the brain that play an important role in the initiation of movements, sensorimotor learning, and motoric expressions of emotional states. Includes the CAUDATE NUCLEUS, PUTAMEN, GLOBUS PALLIDUS, and SUBSTANTIA NIGRA. Cell death in the substantia nigra contributes to Parkinson's disease; also implicated in Tourette Syndrome, Autism, OCD.
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brain stem
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The part of the brain that controls functions including heart rate, breathing, and body temperature; includes MIDBRAIN, PONS, and MEDULLA OBLONGATA. Connects to spinal cord.
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caudate nucleus
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Brain structure; part of the BASAL GANGLIA that controls motor behavior and is implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's, Huntington Disease, ADHD.
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cerebellum
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The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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cerebral cortex
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Comprised of 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
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cingulate gyrus
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satisfaction center of brain; eating & sex
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hippocampus
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part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories
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hypothalamus
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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
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inferior colliculus
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part of the brain in charge of the response to auditory stimulus
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locus coeruleus
|
located in reticular formation, involved in attention, arousal, sleep cycles; associated with depression and panic disorder
|
|
|
lymbic system
|
- places a role in emotion and memory; contains the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cyrus
|
|
|
pituitary
|
gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system
|
|
|
pons & medulla
|
"switchboard" regulating the flow of informatinon between the brain and the rest of the body. Controls facial expression, sleep, respiration, movement, cardiovascular, blood pressure, breathing, etc.
|
|
|
reticular activating system (RAS)
|
filter for incoming sensory information; related to attention, arousal, awaking/sleeping cycle
|
|
|
substantia nigra
|
A structure in the Basal Ganglia, involved in movement; produces Dopamine so if injured can cause Parkinsons
|
|
|
thalamus
|
the structure of the brain that relays messages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex; e.g. the "sensory switchboard"
|
|
|
Wernicke's area
|
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
|
|
|
Peripheral Nervous System
|
division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into SOMATIC (voluntary) nervous system and AUTONOMIC (involuntary) nervous system
|
|
|
Parasympathetic
|
A branch of the autonomic nervous system. This system serves as a counterbalance for the sympathetic nerves. Therefore, it causes the heart rate to SLOW DOWN, lower the blood pressure, constrict eye pupils, and increase digestion.
|
|
|
Sympathetic
|
the division of the autonomic nervous system that AROUSES the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (e.g. Fight/Flight)
|
|
|
CNS Development (5 stages)
|
1) Proliferation, 2) Migration, 3) Differentiation, 4) Myelination, 5) Synaptogenesis
|
|
|
3 main structures of the Hindbrain
|
Medulla, Cerebellum, Pons
|
|
|
Medulla
|
part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
|
|
|
Cerebellum
|
the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance; if smaller size then possible AUTISM; damage = ATAXIA (loss of balance, slurred speech, severe tremors)
|
|
|
Pons
|
literally means "bridge"; it connects the cerebrum with the cerebellum and brainstem; is involved in regulating body movement, attention, sleep, and alertness
|
|
|
The 4 subcortical structures of the FOREBRAIN
|
1) Thalamus, 2) Hypothalamus, 3) Basal Ganglia, 4) Limbic System
|
|
|
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
|
A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; the body's way of monitoring the change from day to night. "circadian rhythms"
|
|
|
Frontal Lobe components
|
motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas
|
|
|
Primary Motor Cortex
|
The section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement.
|
|
|
Premotor Cortex
|
responsible for storing memory for skilled motor movement such as piano playing; Broca's Area (speech production).
|
|
|
Prefrontal Cortex
|
Specific area of the brain responsible for attention, motor inhibition, strategy formation and evaluation of risk taking and rule breaking; executive -higher level cognitions.
|
|
|
Somatosensory Cortex
|
Area of the parietal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position (proprioception)
|
|
|
Parietal Lobe
|
associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli (e.g. pain, touch)
|
|
|
Temporal Lobe
|
The part of the brain that processes information from the senses of HEARING, SMELL, and TASTE, and other sensory and motor tasks; plays a role in LTM encoding/retrieval; lesions can cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
|
|
|
Auditory Cortex
|
The area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information. Damage can result in auditory agnosia and auditory hallucinations.
|
|
|
Occipital Lobe
|
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual cortex, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
|
|
|
visual cortex
|
located in back of brain in occipital lobes, main info-processing center for visual info
|
|
|
Temporal Lobe (memory func)
|
encoding, storage and retrieval of LT declarative memories
|
|
|
cerebellum [functions]
|
balance and posture: refined movemnt, coordination, posture, attentional shifting, sensory motor learning
|
|
|
medulla [functions]
|
regulates vital functions: basic reflexes (e.g. coughing) & vital processes (e.g. heartrate)flow of info from spinal cord to brain
|
|
|
pons [functions]
|
connects 2 halves of cerebellum integration of movement from two sides of brain
|
|
|
reticular formation [location, functions]
|
midbrain respiration, coughing, REM sleep
|
|
|
reticular activating system [functions]
|
arousal, sleep (part. sleep-wake cycle), sensory screening (Mom who wakes for baby)
|
|
|
thalamus [functions]
|
relay station of sensory info (except olfaction)
|
|
|
hypothalamus [functions]
|
most of body needs; helps maintain homeostasis
|
|
|
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SN) [functions]
|
sleep-wake cycle, circadian rhythms
|
|
|
basal ganglia [functions]
|
motor-related
|
|
|
limbic system [functions]
|
mediation of emotion
|
|
|
amygdala [functions/memory]
|
motivation and emotion; attaches emotion to memory; recall of emotionally-charged events
|
|
|
hippocampus [memory functions]
|
consolidation of long-term declarative memory
|
|
|
primary motor cortex [functions]
|
control of voluntary movement
|
|
|
Broca's area [location, function]
|
premotor cortex; speech production
|
|
|
prefrontal cortex [function]
|
executive functioning
|
|
|
parietal lobe [function]
|
senses
|
|
|
somatosensory cortex [function]
|
governs senses (except aud. and vis.)
|
|
|
temporal lobe [memory function; sense]
|
encoding, retrieval, storage of long-term declarative memories; auditory
|
|
|
Wernicke's area [location, function]
|
left temporal lobe; comprehension of language
|
|
|
occipital lobe [location, function]
|
visual cortex; vision
|
|
|
sympathetic {correlated with}
|
arousal
|
|
|
parasympathetic {correlated with}
|
calming down
|
|
|
hindbrain contains
|
brain stem & cerebellum
|
|
|
brain stem contains
|
pons & medulla
|
|
|
midbrain contains
|
reticular formation
|
|
|
forebrain cortical structures
|
frontal, parietal, temporal & occipital lobes
|
|
|
frontal lobe cortices
|
primary motor, pre-motor, prefrontal
|
|
|
primary motor cortex functions
|
voluntary movemt, humunculis; when damaged reslts in flaccid hemoplegia & loss of reflexes
|
|
|
flaccid hemoplegia def.
|
loss of muscle tone
|
|
|
prefrontal cortex [functions]
|
exec fnctioning, mem, emotion
|
|
|
prefrontal cortex {correlated with}
|
ADHD, Schizophr, pseudo depres & psychopathy, age-related cogn decline
|
|
|
parietal lobe [functions]
|
pain, temp, gustation, proprioception
|
|
|
temporal lobe [structure and functions]
|
auditory cortex, and memory related stuff
|
|
|
auditory cortex [functions]
|
mediates auditory sensation and perception
|
|
|
temporal lobe [memory]
|
encoding, retrieval, storage of memory
|
|
|
Occipital lobe [structure]
|
visual cortex
|
|
|
visual cortex [functions]
|
mediates vision, perception, recognition and memory
|
|
|
subcortical structures/systems (4)
|
limbic system, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus
|
|
|
limbic system structures (2)
|
hippocampus, amygdala
|
|
|
hippocampus [functions]
|
(in temporal lobe), consolidation of long-term declarative or explicit memory, learning and memory, spatial, visual, verbal info, cogn maps
|
|
|
damage to hippocampus {correlated with}
|
Kluver-Busie syndrome
|
|
|
amydala [memory functions]
|
implicit emotional memory, motivation, olfactory memory
|
|
|
basal ganglia [functions]
|
caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra (Park.'s), planning, orgnizing, sensory motor learning, coordinating movement, stereotyped species- specific stereotyped expressions (smiling, etc.)
|
|
|
thalamus [functions]
|
relay station for sensory info (except olfaction); motor, language, memory
|
|
|
low thiamine {correlated with}
|
in temporal lobe leads to Korsikoff syndrome [drinking too much alcohol at the relay station]
|
|
|
hypothalamus [functions]
|
(connected directly to brain stem, the basics) hunger, sex, sleep, thirst, body temp, movement, emotional reaction, homeostasis, influences ANS & pituitary and endrocrine glands
|
|
|
superchiasmic nucleus [location, functions]
|
in hypothalamus; circadian rhythm, a lot of sleep stuff (connects to the RAS)
|
|
|
long-term memory [structures] (4)
|
prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe, thalamus (relay station), hippocampus
|
|
|
Brainstem
|
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brianstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
|
|
|
Medulla
|
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
|
|
|
Reticular formation
|
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
|
|
|
Thalamus
|
The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
|
|
|
Cerebellum
|
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
|
|
|
Broca's area
|
controls language expression -- an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
|
|
|
Wernicke's area
|
Controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
|
|
|
corpus callosum
|
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
|
|
|
limbic system
|
neural system that sits between the brain's older parts and its cerebral hemisphere. its hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland
|
|
|
amygdala
|
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system that's linked to emotion
|
|
|
hypothalamus
|
neural structure lying below the thalamus that directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking and body temperature. it helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward
|
|
|
cerebral cortex
|
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; it's the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
|
|
|
glial cells
|
cells in the nervous center that support, nourish, and protect neurons
|
|
|
frontal lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex directly behind the forehead; used in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
|
|
|
parietal lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex at the top and rear of the head; it receives sensory input for touch and body position
|
|
|
occipital lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
|
|
|
temporal lobes
|
part of the cerebral cortex around each ear that includes the auditory areas that receive information mainly from the opposite ear
|
|
|
motor cortex
|
area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement
|
|
|
sensory cortex
|
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
|
|
|
nervous system
|
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
|
|
|
central nervous system (CNS)
|
the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
|
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
|
|
|
nerves
|
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
|
|
|
somatic nervous system
|
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
|
|
|
autonomic nervous system
|
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
|
|
|
sympathetic nervous system
|
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
|
|
|
parasympathetic nervous system
|
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
|
|
|
acetylcholine (Ach)
|
neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, & memory; also involved in REM, sleep/wake cycle. Undersupply of production causes Alzheimer's.
|
|
|
agonist
|
enhances effect
|
|
|
amino acids
|
GABA, Glycine, & Glutamate
|
|
|
amygdala
|
a part of the limbic system that plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
|
|
|
antagonist
|
inhibits effect
|
|
|
dopamine
|
neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of it linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia
|
|
|
enkephalins & endorphins
|
endogenous opioids; regulate stress and pain
|
|
|
GABA & glycine
|
have calming effect; this neurotransmitter is a powerful inhibitory; when LOW - high anxiety, epileptic seizures
|
|
|
Gate control theory
|
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; it proposes the nervous system can process only a certain amt of info at one time.
|
|
|
glutamate
|
major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; most common neurotransmitter; abnormal levels found in schizophrenia
|
|
|
norepinephrine
|
a neurotransmitter that activates the sympathetic response to stress, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure in support of rapid action; depression - low; manic - high
|
|
|
serotonin
|
A neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and eating disorders.
|
|
|
2 Types of Cholinergic (Ach) cells
|
1) Nicotinic - excitatory and enhances alertness, 2) Muscarinic - inhibitory; found in smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands
|
|
|
Catecholamines
|
Involved with personality, mood, memory, & sleep. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline); Epinephrine (adrenaline); Dopamine.
|
|
|
Serotonin (5-HT) regulates...
|
[is an inhibitory neurotransmitter] mood, hunger,temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression.
|
|
|
Endorphins
|
"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
|
|
|
biological psychology
|
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.
|
|
|
neuron
|
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
|
|
|
sensory neurons
|
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
motor neurons
|
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
|
|
|
interneurons
|
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
|
|
|
dentrite
|
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
|
|
|
axon
|
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
|
|
|
myelin sheath
|
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
|
|
|
action potential
|
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
|
|
|
threshold
|
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
|
|
|
synapse
|
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
|
|
|
neurotransmitters
|
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
|
|
|
reuptake
|
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
|
|
|
endorphins
|
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
|
|
|
reflex
|
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
|
|
|
endocrine system
|
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
|
|
|
hormones
|
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
|
|
|
adrenal glands
|
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
|
|
|
pituitary gland
|
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
|
|
|
Anatomy of the eye
|
Light waves enter eye & pass through cornea, pupil, & lens, then received by the retina
|
|
|
Cornea
|
Transparent covering in the front of the eye
|
|
|
Pupil
|
opening with the colored part (iris). It opens to regulate the amount of entering light.
|
|
|
Lens
|
This focuses the light waves on the retina
|
|
|
Retina
|
This comprises the inner lining of the eyeball
|
|
|
Rods
|
Sensitive to degrees of brightness. They sense stimuli in low levels of light; are located at the periphery of the retina
|
|
|
Cones
|
For seeing color. They function only in light. They cluster around the center of the retina
|
|
|
1. Rods and cones synapse with...
|
2. Bipolar Cells
|
|
|
2. Bipolar cells synapse with...
|
3. Ganglion cells
|
|
|
3. Ganglion cells form bundles called...
|
4. optic nerves
|
|
|
4. Optic nerves carry ...
|
nerve impulses from the retina to the brain
|
|
|
Blind spot
|
where the optic nerve leaves the retina
|
|
|
Describe optic nerve fibers.
|
The optic nerve contains 2 bundles of fibers. The inner bundle goes to the opposite side of the brain as the outer bundle. The left field signals go to the right and the right field signals go to the left.
|
|
|
1. Vibrations enter through...
|
2. the auditory canal and ear drum.
|
|
|
2. What is the Eardrum?
|
A membrane that vibrates as a function of sound waves.
|
|
|
2. Vibrations on the eardrum are amplified by...
|
3. Three ossicle bones
|
|
|
Vibrations are transmitted to...
|
4. the oval window.
|
|
|
4. The oval window puts pressure on...
|
5. liquid of the inner ear, cochlea.
|
|
|
5. Pressure on liquid of the inner ear causes...
|
6. movement of the hair cells.
|
|
|
Hair cells are...
|
auditory receptors.
|
|
|
range of audible frequencies
|
20-20,000 cycles per second (CPS)
|
|
|
amplitude
|
determines loudness
|
|
|
pain threshold of loudness-amplitude
|
120 decibels
|
|
|
timbre
|
complexity of sound waves
|
|
|
auditory localization
|
the ability to orient towards direction of sound. It is present at birth and declines 1 to 4 months. It re-emerges and is fully developed at 1 year.
|
|
|
somesthesis
|
The faculty of bodily perception; sensory systems associated with the body; includes skin senses and proprioception and the internal organs. Includes: Touch, Body Position, Temperature, & Pain
|
|
|
Pain sensitivity is affected by subjective variables which include...
|
Attention, motivation, and suggestion
|
|
|
Pain is an interaction between...
|
psychological & physiological mechanisms.
|
|
|
Smell runs directly to the
|
limbic system
|
|
|
Sense of smell
|
Most primitive sense
|
|
|
visual agnosia
|
characterized by an inability to name an object while being able to demonstrate its use or matching it to similar objects. It is often caused by a stroke involving the posterior cerebral artery.
|
|
|
aperceptive agnosia
|
A person cannot identify a familiar object visually but can identify it kinesthetically when it is placed in his hand. It is believed to be caused by lesions in the visual association cortex, which is located in the occipital lobe.
|
|
|
Synesthesia
|
Refers to a sensation that occurs in one sense modality when another modality has been stimulated - e.g., perceiving auditory stimuli as color.
|
|
|
Achromatopsia
|
A congenital deficit in the perception of color.
|
|
|
Handedness development
|
While hand preference typically emerges around age 2, it only becomes firmly established around age 7 to 8.
|
|
|
Nervous system composed of what?
|
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
|
|
|
What makes up the CNS?
|
Brain and Spinal Cord
|
|
|
Brain composed of what 3 parts?
|
1. primitive core - sleeping & breathing 2. limbic system - basic drives (hunger/thirst) and emotions (rage/fear/pleasure) 3. cerebral cortex or cerebrum - higher functions
|
|
|
Peripheral Nervous System
|
Somatic and Autonomic NS
|
|
|
Somatic Nervous System
|
controls skeletal muscles; voluntary movement; info from senses
|
|
|
Autonomic Nervous System
|
"auto" or involuntary activity i.e. BP, heartbeat. Autonomic arousal correlated with changes in emotionality Measured by EKG and GS (galvanic skin response)
|
|
|
Autonomic Nervous System divided into what?
|
Sympathectic - "fight or flight"; Parasympathetic - relaxation, conservation
|
|
|
acetylcholine
|
A neurotransmitter produced and released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons, by motoneurons, and by neurons throughout the brain
|
|
|
allocortex
|
Brain tissue with three layers or unlayered organization
|
|
|
amygdala
|
A group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temporal lobe
|
|
|
angiography
|
A brain-imaging technique in which a specialized X-ray image of the head is taken shortly after the cerebral blood vessels have been filled with a radiopaque dye by means of a catheter
|
|
|
anterior cerebral arteries
|
Two large arteries, arising from the carotids, that provide blood to the anterior poles and medial surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
|
|
|
apical dendrite
|
The dendrite that extends from a pyramidal cell to the outermost surface of the cortex
|
|
|
arachnoid
|
The thin covering (one of the three meninges) of the brain that lies between the dura mater and pia mater
|
|
|
arborization
|
The elaborate branching of the dendrites of some neurons
|
|
|
astrocyte
|
A star-shaped glial cell with numerous processes (extensions) that run in all directions
|
|
|
autonomic ganglia
|
Collections of nerve cell bodies, belonging to the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system, that are found in various locations and innervate the major organs
|
|
|
autonomic nervous system
|
The part of the peripheral nervous system that supplies neural connections to glands and to smooth muscles of internal organs
|
|
|
autoradiography
|
A histological technique that shows the distribution of radioactive chemicals in tissues
|
|
|
axon collateral
|
A branch of an axon from a single neuron
|
|
|
axon hillock
|
A cone-shaped area from which the axon originates out of the cell body. Functionally, the integration zone of the neuron
|
|
|
axon terminal
|
Also called synaptic bouton. The end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a synapse on a neuron or other target cell
|
|
|
axon
|
A single extension from the nerve cell that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons
|
|
|
axonal transport
|
The transportation of materials from the neuronal cell body to distant regions in the dendrites and axons, and from the axon terminals back to the cell body
|
|
|
basal dendrite
|
One of several dendrites on a pyramidal cell that extend horizontally from the cell body
|
|
|
basal ganglia
|
A group of forebrain nuclei, including caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen, found deep within the cerebral hemispheres
|
|
|
basilar artery
|
An artery, formed by the fusion of the vertebral arteries, that supplies blood to the brainstem and to the posterior cerebral arteries
|
|
|
bipolar neuron
|
A nerve cell that has a single dendrite at one end and a single axon at the other end
|
|
|
blood-brain barrier
|
The mechanisms that make the movement of substances from blood vessels into brain cells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs, thus affording the brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in the blood
|
|
|
brainstem
|
The region of the brain that consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla
|
|
|
c-fos
|
An immediate early gene commonly used to identify activated neurons
|
|
|
carotid arteries
|
The major arteries that ascend the left and right sides of the neck to the brain, supplying blood to the anterior and middle cerebral arteries
|
|
|
cauda equina
|
The caudal-most spinal nerves, which extend beyond the spinal cord proper to exit the spinal column
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cell body or soma
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The region of a neuron that is defined by the presence of the cell nucleus
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cell nucleus
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The spherical central structure of a cell that contains the chromosomes
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central nervous system (CNS)
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The portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord
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central sulcus
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A fissure that divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
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cerebellum
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A structure located at the back of the brain, dorsal to the pons, that is involved in the central regulation of movement
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cerebral cortex
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Sometimes called simply cortex. The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, which consists largely of nerve cell bodies and their branches
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cerebral hemispheres
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The right and left halves of the forebrain
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cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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The fluid that fills the cerebral ventricles
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cervical
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Referring to the topmost 8 segments of the spinal cord, in the neck region
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choroid plexus
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A highly vascular portion of the lining of the ventricles that secretes cerebrospinal fluid
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cingulate gyrus
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A cortical portion of the limbic system, found in the frontal and parietal midline
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circle of Willis
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A structure at the base of the brain that is formed by the joining of the carotid and basilar arteries
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coccygeal
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Referring to the lowest spinal vertebra (also known as the tailbone)
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computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT)
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A noninvasive technique for examining brain structure in humans through computer analysis of X-ray absorption at several positions around the head. conduction zone The part of the neuron over which the nerve’s electrical signal may be actively propagated. Usually corresponds to the cell’s axon
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corpus callosum
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The main band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
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cortical column
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One of the vertical columns that constitute the basic organization of the neocortex
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cranial nerve
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A nerve that is connected directly to the brain
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dendrite
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One of the extensions of the cell body that are the receptive surfaces of the neuron
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diencephalon
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The posterior part of the forebrain, including the thalamus and hypothalamus
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dorsal root
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The branch of a spinal nerve, entering the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, that carries sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord
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dura mater
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The outermost of the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord
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edema
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The swelling of tissue, especially in the brain, in response to injury
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enteric nervous system
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An extensive meshlike system of neurons that governs the functioning of the gut
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forebrain
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Also called prosencephalon. The frontal division of the neural tube, containing the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus
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fornix
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A fiber tract that extends from the hippocampus to the mammillary body
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fourth ventricle
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The passageway within the pons that receives cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle and releases it to surround the brain and spinal cord
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frontal lobe
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The most anterior portion of the cerebral cortex
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functional MRI (fMRI)
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Magnetic resonance imaging that detects changes in blood flow and therefore identifies regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task
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glial cells
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Also called glia or neuroglia. Nonneuronal brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other types of support to the brain
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globus pallidus
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One of the basal ganglia
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Golgi stain
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A histological stain that fills a small proportion of neurons with a dark, silver-based precipitate
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granule cell
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A type of small nerve cell
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gray matter
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Areas of the brain that are dominated by cell bodies and are devoid of myelin
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gross neuroanatomy
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Anatomical features of the nervous system that are apparent to the naked eye
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gyrus
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A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface
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hindbrain
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Also called rhombencephalon. The rear division of the brain, which, in the mature vertebrate, contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla
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hippocampus
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A medial temporal lobe structure that is important for learning and memory
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horseradish peroxidase (HRP)
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An enzyme found in horseradish and other plants that is used to determine the cells of origin of a particular set of axons
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hypothalamus
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Part of the diencephalon, lying ventral to the thalamus
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immediate early genes (IEGs)
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A class of genes that show rapid but transient increases in expression in cells that have become activated
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immunocytochemistry (ICC)
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A method for detecting a particular protein in tissues in which an antibody recognizes and binds to the protein and then chemical methods are used to leave a visible reaction product around each antibody
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in situ hybridization
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A method for detecting particular RNA transcripts in tissue sections by providing a nucleotide probe that is complementary to, and will therefore hybridize with, the transcript of interest
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inferior colliculi
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Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive auditory information
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innervate
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To provide neural input
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input zone
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The part of a neuron that receives information, from other neurons or from specialized sensory structures. Usually corresponds to the cell’s dendrites
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integration zone
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The part of the neuron that initiates nerve electrical activity, described in detail in Chapter 3. Usually corresponds to the neuron’s axon hillock
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interneuron
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A neuron that is neither a sensory neuron nor a motoneuron. it receives input from and sends output to other neurons
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lateral ventricle
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A complexly shaped lateral portion of the ventricular system within each hemisphere of the brain
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limbic system
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A loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network
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lumbar
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Referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the upper part of the lower back
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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A noninvasive technique that uses magnetic energy to generate images that reveal some structural details in the living brain
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magnetoencephalography (MEG)
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A passive and noninvasive functional brain-imaging technique that measures the tiny magnetic fields produced by active neurons, in order to identify regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task
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mammillary body
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One of a pair of nuclei at the base of the brain
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meninges
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The three protective sheets of tissue—dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid—that surround the brain and spinal cord
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meningitis
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An acute inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by a viral or bacterial infection
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metencephalon
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A subdivision of the hindbrain that includes the cerebellum and the pons
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microglial cells
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Also called microglia. Extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells
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midbrain
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Also called mesencephalon. The middle division of the brain
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middle cerebral arteries
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Two large arteries, arising from the carotids, that provide blood to most of the lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
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mitochondrion
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A cellular organelle that provides metabolic energy for the cell’s processes
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motoneuron
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Also called motor neuron. A nerve cell that transmits motor messages, stimulating a muscle or gland
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multipolar neuron
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A nerve cell that has many dendrites and a single axon
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myelencephalon or medulla
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The posterior part of the hindbrain, continuous with the spinal cord
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myelin
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The fatty insulation around an axon, formed by glial cells, that improves the speed of conduction of nerve impulses
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myelination
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The process of myelin formation
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neocortex (isocortex) or cortex
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Cerebral cortex that is made up of six distinct layers
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nerve
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A collection of axons bundled together outside the central nervous system
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neural plasticity
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Also called neuroplasticity. The ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment
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neural tube
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An embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
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neuron doctrine
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The hypothesis that the brain is composed of separate cells that are distinct structurally, metabolically, and functionally
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neuron or nerve cell
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The basic unit of the nervous system, each composed of a cell body, receptive extension(s) (dendrites), and a transmitting extension (axon)
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neurotransmitter
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Also called synaptic transmitter, chemical transmitter, or simply transmitter. The chemical released from the presynaptic axon terminal that serves as the basis of communication between neurons
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Nissl stain
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A histological stain that outlines all cell bodies because the dyes are attracted to RNA, which encircles the nucleus
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node of Ranvier
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A gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed
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norepinephrine
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Also called noradrenaline. A neurotransmitter produced and released by sympathetic postganglionic neurons to accelerate organ activity. Also produced in the brainstem and found in projections throughout the brain
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nucleus
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Here, a collection of neuronal cell bodies within the central nervous system (e.g., the caudate nucleus)
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occipital lobes
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Large regions of cortex covering much of the posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere
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olfactory bulb
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An anterior projection of the brain that terminates in the upper nasal passages and, through small openings in the skull, provides receptors for smell
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oligodendrocyte
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A type of glial cell that forms myelin in the central nervous system
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optical imaging
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A method for visualizing brain activity in which near-infrared light is passed through the scalp and skull
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output zone
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The part of a neuron, usually corresponding to the axon terminals, at which the cell sends information to another cell
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parallel fiber
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One of the axons of the granule cells that form the outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex
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parasympathetic nervous system
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A component of the autonomic nervous system that arises from both the cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord
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parietal lobes
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Large regions of cortex lying between the frontal and occipital lobes of each cerebral hemisphere
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peripheral nervous system
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The portion of the nervous system that includes all the nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord
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pia mater
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The innermost of the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord
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pons
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A portion of the metencephalon; part of the brainstem connecting midbrain to medulla
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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A technique for examining brain function by combining tomography with injections of radioactive substances used by the brain
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postcentral gyrus
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The strip of parietal cortex, just behind the central sulcus, that receives somatosensory information from the entire body
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posterior cerebral arteries
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Two large arteries, arising from the basilar artery, that provide blood to posterior aspects of the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, and brainstem
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postganglionic
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Literally, “after the ganglion.” Referring to neurons in the autonomic nervous system that run from the autonomic ganglia to various targets in the body
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postsynaptic membrane
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The specialized membrane on the surface of the cell that receives information by responding to neurotransmitter from a presynaptic neuron
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postsynaptic
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Referring to the region of a synapse that receives and responds to neurotransmitter
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precentral gyrus
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The strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial for motor control
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preganglionic
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Literally, “before the ganglion.” Referring to neurons in the autonomic nervous system that run from the central nervous system to the autonomic ganglia
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presynaptic membrane
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The specialized membrane of the axon terminal of the neuron that transmits information by releasing neurotransmitter
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presynaptic
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Referring to the region of the synapse that releases neurotransmitter
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Purkinje cell
|
A type of large nerve cell in the cerebellar cortex
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putamen
|
One of the basal ganglia
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pyramidal cell
|
A type of large nerve cell that has a roughly pyramid-shaped cell body, found in the cerebral cortex
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receptor
|
Also called receptor molecule. A protein that captures and reacts to molecules of a neurotransmitter or hormone
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red nucleus
|
A brainstem structure related to motor control
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reticular formation
|
An extensive region of the brainstem (extending from the medulla through the thalamus) that is involved in arousal (waking)
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ribosomes
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Structures in the cell body where genetic information is translated to produce proteins
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sacral
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Referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the lower part of the lower back
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Schwann cell
|
The glial cell that forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system
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sensory neuron
|
A neuron that is directly affected by changes in the environment, such as light, odor, or touch
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spinal nerve
|
Also called somatic nerve. A nerve that emerges from the spinal cord
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stroke
|
Damage to a region of brain tissue that results from blockage or rupture of vessels that supply blood to that region
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substantia nigra
|
A brainstem structure in humans that is related to the basal ganglia and is named for its dark pigmentation
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sulcus
|
A furrow of a convoluted brain surface
|
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superior colliculi
|
Paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain that receive visual information and are involved in direction of visual gaze and visual attention to intended stimuli
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Sylvian fissure
|
Also called lateral sulcus. A deep fissure that demarcates the temporal lobe
|
|
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sympathetic chain
|
A chain of ganglia that runs along each side of the spinal column; part of the sympathetic nervous system
|
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sympathetic nervous system
|
A component of the autonomic nervous system that arises from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord
|
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synapse
|
The tiny gap between neurons where information is passed from one to the other
|
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synaptic cleft
|
The space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements
|
|
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synaptic vesicle
|
A small, spherical structure that contains molecules of neurotransmitter
|
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tectum
|
The dorsal portion of the midbrain, including the inferior and superior colliculi
|
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telencephalon
|
The frontal subdivision of the forebrain that includes the cerebral hemispheres when fully developed
|
|
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temporal lobes
|
Large lateral cortical regions of each cerebral hemisphere, continuous with the parietal lobes posteriorly, and separated from the frontal lobe by the Sylvian fissure
|
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thalamus
|
The brain regions that surround the third ventricle
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third ventricle
|
The midline ventricle that conducts cerebrospinal fluid from the lateral ventricles to the fourth ventricle
|
|
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thoracic
|
Referring to the 12 spinal segments below the cervical (neck) portion of the spinal cord, corresponding to the chest
|
|
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tract
|
A bundle of axons found within the central nervous system
|
|
|
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
|
Localized, noninvasive stimulation of cortical neurons through the application of strong magnetic fields. unipolar neuron Also called monopolar neuron. A nerve cell with a single branch that leaves the cell body and then extends in two directions: one end is the receptive pole, the other end the output zone
|
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ventral root
|
The branch of a spinal nerve, arising from the ventral horn of the spinal cord, that carries motor messages from the spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system
|
|
|
ventricular system
|
A system of fluid-filled cavities inside the brain
|
|
|
vertebral arteries
|
Arteries that ascend the vertebrae, enter the base of the skull, and join together to form the basilar artery
|
|
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white matter
|
A shiny layer underneath the cortex that consists largely of axons with white myelin sheaths
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