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203 Cards in this Set
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Phenotypic plasticity
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Phenotype combination of genotype and environment
Natural physical manifestation of genotype |
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Acclimatization
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Physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individual’s lifetime. The capacity for acclimatization may typify an entire species or population, and because it’s under genetic influence, it’s subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection or genetic drift.
How our body adjusts in a lifetime Can be long term, short term, developmental acclimatization or permanent |
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3 types of Acclimatization
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temporary and rapid adjustment to an environmental change (ex: Tanning)
• increase in hemoglobin production- people who live at lower elevations and travel to higher ones • these are temporary- tans fade and hemoglobin drops permanent • after exposure the physical adjustments don’t disappear developmental acclimatization • results from exposure to an environmental challenge during growth and development • individual’s physiology- not reversible • EX: physiological responses we see in life long residents of high altitudes |
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skin color and solar radiation
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light, solar radiation and skin determines skin color.
Adaptation through natural selection Most pigmentation in tropical countries Skin color- Bottom of epidermis |
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Influences skin color
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Hemoglobin
Protein carotene The pigment melanin |
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Melanin
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gives body brown color
granular substance produced by specialized cells called melanocytes (outer layer of skin) acts as a built in sun screen formed by pigment cells (Melatocytes) absorbs UV rays |
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all humans have the same amount of...
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Melanin
but very in amount of melanin and size of melanin granules produced |
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African American’s have more concentrated
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melanocytes
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Melanin protects us from over exposure (which causes mutation in skin cells)
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these mutations lead to skin cancer
untreated spread to other organs and even result to death |
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vitamin D production and deficiency
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o essential for mineralization and normal growth of bones during infancy and childhood
because it enables the body to absorb calcium from dietary sources o able to synthesize it through the interaction of UV light and a form of cholesterol found in skin cells |
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in past we generated and produced Vitamin D from UV rays
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compromise between Vitamin D and Cancer
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rickets
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insufficient amounts of Vitamin D during childhood
leads to bone deformities (mostly weight bearing bones- legs and pelvis) |
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temperature/humidity and phenotypic response
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Cold Stress
-pull in blood to keep body warm -shivering raises metabolism Heat stress -blood comes outward sweat oAcclimatize by adding layers, by fire, and drinking warm |
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Body Size
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Bergmann and Allen's Rule
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Bergmann and Allen’s Rule
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Weather determines body shape and size
•Closer to the poles the people are short and thicker •Near the equator, people are tall and thin |
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Bergmann's Rule
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o Surface Area and Volume
o As you increase volume your surface area shrinks |
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Allen's rule
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Eskimo, Maasi
o Lengths of Appendages (limbs) o Short arms lock in heat |
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Adaptability
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An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptations result from evolutionary change (specifically as a result of natural selection)
our ability to adapt depending on genetics |
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High altitude stress
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oxygen levels increase @ high altitudes
effects low air pressure solar radiation low humidity limited food hypoxia occurs |
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migrant models
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look @ people from coast that moved to high altitudes
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Hypoxia
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oxygen deprivation is a result of high altitude stress
-reduces available oxygen |
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dietary adaptations
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lactose tolerance
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Lactose tolerance
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the inability to digest fresh milk products, caused by the discontinued production of lactase --- the enzyme that breaks down lactose, or milk sugar
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_______ is used to digest milk
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lactace
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Diseases
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Cell Maligancy
infections Genetic -sickle cell anemia -diabetes -vitamin deficiencies -heart disease |
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Cell malignancy
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cancer
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Infections
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stimulated by cultural factors
-before people crowded together there were less diseases |
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Types of Infections
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HIV
Chromosome 6 Lymphocytes Bubonic Plague |
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Immune respose to infections is a
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defense mechanism
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Lymphocytes
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Determine response
-B Cells -T cells |
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Chromosome 6
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Major histocompatibility complex
where immune responses are genetically programmed |
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B Cells
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produce antibodies binds
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T Cells
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Attach directly or call b cells or end response
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foreign antigens
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provoke an immune response
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Antibodies (immunoglobins)
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o proteins that are produced by some types of immune cells and that serve as major components of the immune cells. Antibodies recognize and attach to foreign antigens on bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. the other immune cells destroy the invading organisms
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Radiation
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leads to inheriting new genetics genetic diseases
increases population crowding/density artificial and natural |
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Artificial radiation
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nuclear weapons
waste x-rays |
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Natural radiation
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cosmic rays
radium thorium |
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Mutagen
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causes mutation
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Aristotle
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*Nothing ever changes.
Aristotle held back biology and medicine for 1500 years. The idea that nothing ever changes meant that evolution was impossible so biology and medicine couldn’t move forward. |
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“All things living are imperfect reflections of idealized image. Even humans—Image of God."
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Aristotle
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Copernicus
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Polish astronomer who developed the Helio-centric model.
Developed by observations of stars that took their own path (planets). |
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The sun was the center of the universe is part of what model
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Helio-centric
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Ptolemy
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Humans are are part of nature and not above it
Geo centric |
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main contribution was earth was the center of the universe. Believed everything in the Heavens revolved around the earth.
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geo-centric
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Secularism
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belief that religion should be separate from certain institutions or practices.
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Binomial Nonmenclature
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formal system of naming species
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Linnaeus
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not an evolutionist-- wanted to understand God's work.
Believe that you must compartmentalize b/c the world is too big individual thinking. |
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Wrote “The Natural System”.
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linnaeus
book on dividing all livin things into a ranking order (heiarchially) |
Feathers- birds
Fins - fish |
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Had a consistent system for naming. (ex. Named mammals, using similarities)
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linnaeus
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Buffon
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reconized relationship between enviornment and nature
(Survival of the fittest) |
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First to write common organisms develop from a common ancestor.
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Buffon
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Erasmus Darwin
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Charles’ grandfather. Rejected the idea that species didn’t change
Saw gradual changed Accrued Advantages |
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Darwin
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Natural selection
He was a clergy man and naturalist on a ship to explore new land. Ended up in the Galapagos Islands and noticed all the different types of finches. Those with favorable variations reproduce variation=imperfect (variation was the key to evolution |
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Natural Selection
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Those with favorable variations reproduce variation=imperfect (variation was the key to evolution)
responsible for changes in allele frequencies |
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Lamarck
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French consider him the father of evolutionary thinking.
He was a zoological philosophy. Uniform geology |
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Uniform geology process
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—process that works today are the same ones that worked in the past.
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Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
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(when the environment changes, so does the animal)
By Lamark |
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Malthus
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Argued that ppl grow in numbers geometrically. Population doubled every generation and goes down before it goes back up.
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Lyell
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Wrote book “Principles of Geology” and said that the geological process observed in the present went on in the past (uniformitarianism).
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Wallace
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Same idea as Darwin but with beetles. “Origin of Species” to be published upon his death. Together they presented new idea
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1859
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Darwin published wallace's book
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Gradualism
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the traditional view of evolution has emphasized that change accumulates gradually in evolving lineages.
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Prokaryotic Cell
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(no nuclei) a classic example is blue-green algae.
single celled |
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Eukaryotic Cell
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(have a nucleus) allows first time for multi-cellular organisms. Each human has about 1 trillion eukaryote cells.
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Nucleus
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most important fluid filled sack with nuclear membrane
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Mitochondria
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Power/energy supply for the cell and important because of its structure. Comprised of a DNA that forms the structure of the mitochondria.
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Cytoplasm
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what everything in a cell floats in
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ribosome
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where amino acid form proteins
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Gametes
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Sex cell
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Somatic Cells
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cells that make up the basic structure of the human body. All cells are somatic cells except sex cells.
cellular components of tissue |
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Chromosomes
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contain all hereditary information and regulate life (esp. proteins that are formed). 1 chromosome=1 DNA molecule because chromosomes and DNA are the same thing. 23 total pairs (46)
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Chromatin
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46 strains of DNA together
(23 pairs) wound around each other when seperated- winds around itself |
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centromeres
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Two strands of DNA because the first has been replicated.
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Karyotype
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when you get a cell in process of dividing and the chromosomes line up on either side of the cell.
provides us with genetic info |
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Chromatides
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of DNA and each contain same information
a pair are wrapped in centromese makes copies of itself |
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Mitosis
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How regular cells divide
Cell division of normal eukaryote cells -Interphase -prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase |
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Interphase
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most of life, just hanging out --- chromatin in nucleus
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Prophase
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When a cell begins to divide and nuclear membrane begins to break down
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Metaphase
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all chromosomes line up along equator of the cell
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anaphase
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individual chromatides seperate out. Being pulled by spindle fibers towards the center
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telophase
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cell begins to pinch into two cells and chromatins are at 2 sides. At the end there are 2 daughter cells
(copy themselves--- DNA replication) |
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Meiosis
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process for reproductive cells (gametes)
Guys need to produce as man sperm as possible b/c each doesn’t have much of a chance. Same as elements of mitosis. |
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how sex cells divide
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Meiosis
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Spermatogenesis
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forming sperm
2 cells |
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Recombination
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(also sometimes called “crossing-over” is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. DNA
Combo of traits |
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DNA
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(deoxyribonucleic acid) the double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code. DNA is a main component of chromosomes.
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Nucleotides
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the smaller molecules that DNA is composed of (deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base).
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Hydrogen bond
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holds nucliotide bases together
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Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine
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each nucleotide is made of one of these four chemical bases. A & T and G & C pair together (base pairing rule)
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DNA Replication
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when a cell divides, the DNA must make copies of itself so that each new cell receives a full complement of the genetic code.
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amino acids
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chains of smaller molecules that proteins are made up of. In all there are 20 amino acids, 8 of which must be obtained from the foods we eat and the other 12 we produce in cells.
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Peptide Bonds
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chemical bonds formed by two molecules that results in a amide
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polypeptide chains
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sequence of amino acids that act (alone or in combo w/ others) as a functional protein
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bonded by peptide bond
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Proteins
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three-dimensional molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules.
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Protein Synthesis
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the assembly of chains of amino acids into functional protein molecules. Process is directed by DNA.
manufacture of protein |
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Ribosome
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Structures composed of a form of RNA called ribosomal RNA and protein. Ribosomes are found in the cell’s cytoplasm and are essential to the manufacture of proteins.
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RNA
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ribonucleic acid is a single-stranded molecule, similar in structure to DNA. Three forms of RNA are essential to protein synthesis. They are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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Uracil
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substitutes for thymine
in RNA and attaches to adenine |
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Transctiption
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process of copying DNA to RNA by an enzyme called RNA polymerase (RNAP)
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Translation
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occurs in the cytoplasm and mRNA into a chain of amino acids that form proteins.
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Gene
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section of DNA responsible for the ultimate synthesis of a specific gene product, usually a polypeptide chain of amino acids
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Locus
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particular location on a homologous chromosomes (loci=plural)
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Allele
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different forms of DNA code @ a given location of locus. Different alleles often end up different traits.
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Base Sequence
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AT & CG
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Point mutation
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can cause things like sickle Cell
one individual nucleotide replaces another |
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Pangenesis Theory
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Ancient Greeks argued women had particles inside them
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Homunculus Theory
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dominate theory up to modern genetics. Argued men carried “seed” and planted it into the womb. Basically believed it was all man.
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Mendel
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His job was to keep the garden up and he began experimenting with pea plants. He looked at 7 different traits: shape, color, stems, flowers, etc.
described inheritance |
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Law of Segregation
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act of separation and then bringing them back together. All allele pairs randomly segregate during gamete formation (meiosis). Paired condition restored with fusion (fertilization).
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Dominate
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trait that masks the other traits. (B)—heterozygote
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Recessive
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masked by the dominate (b)—homozygote
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Law of Independent Assortment
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each allele pair segregates independently of all others.
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Phenotype
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characteristics of an individual visually observed or discernable by other means.
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Punnett Square
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a short-hand tool used to calculate offspring genotypes from specific parental genotypes
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Sickle Cell Anemia
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inherit it from both parents—hemoglobin disorder.
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Hybrids
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Offspring of individuals that differ with regard to certain traits or certain aspects of genetic makeup; heterozygote
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Dihybrid Cross
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cross between two identical heterozygous—often used to test for dominate and recessive genes in two different characteristics
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ABO Blood Group
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all of the ABO blood types are determined by two genetically determined proteins called antigens
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Codominance
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the expression of two alleles in heterozygotes. In this situation, neither allele is dominant or recessive so they both influence the phenotype.
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Non independed Assortment
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linked genes
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Mendelian traits
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: Characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus. Examples: sickle-call anemia, ABO blood type
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Autosomal traits
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if the allele is on chromosomes 1-22 then the trait is dominant (will show it)
not sex cells |
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Sex-link traits
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hemophilia is an example
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Polygenic inheritance
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continuous” traits)—phenotypic traits from two or more genes and their interaction with the environment.
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Growth
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increase in body mass of number of cells
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Hyperplasia
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increase in # of cells
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hypertrophy
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increase in cell size
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Development
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Differentiation and maturation (change in chromosome structure) of cells into different types of tissue
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Human bone growth
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endrochondrial ossification—Long bone growth diaphysis and epiphysis (spongey) eventually join together for ossification
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stature
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provides excellent view of health and nutrition in population. Rapid growth in 1st and 2nd trimesters and increasing until 4 years old. Growing spurts in early infancy and puberty.
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brain growth
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25% at birth, 50% at six months, 75% at 2.5 years old, 90% at 5, and 95% at 10
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Nutrition
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what we get out of food
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Proteins
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provide amino acids—8 essential ones we have to get from food
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essential amino acids
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produce all but 8 that we need and those 8 we have to get from the food we eat—protein is the best source; however, beans or tofu contain them as well
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Carbohydrates
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main energy source for the body (starches, polysaccharides) broken down into simple sugars
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Lipids
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not as good as carbs but also energy that gets broken down into glucose (fats, oils, butter)
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Vitamins
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serve as enzymatic to speed up chemical reactions—2 categories: Water soluble (B,C) excreted in urine and fat soluble (ADEK) and all storable
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Mineral/Trace Elements
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inorganic nutrients used by the body—calcium (bone and teeth), iron (oxygen transportation), and iodine (thyroid function) are most important
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Diets before Agriculture
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not enough time for human bodies to have adjusted—no longer made to eat the way we do now.
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Undernutrition
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not getting enough food (calories)
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Malnutrition
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not getting the right kind of food—protein deficiency is a big problem in 3rd world countries.
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Factors influencing growth & development
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genetics, hormones, environmental
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Human life cycle
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conception/pregnancy, gestation, birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, postreproductive period, death
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microevolution
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small changes occurring within species such as a change in allele frequencies.
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macroevolution
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changes produced only after many generations, such as the appearance of new species
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Gene Flow
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exchange of genes between populations
migration of alleles in or out of a pop |
war or mating with another culture
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Genetic Drift
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evolutionary changes—changes in allele; frequencies produced by random factors—genetic drift is a result of small population size.
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Founder Effect
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a type of genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from, or are remaining of, the larger population.
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Enviornmental Changes
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affect DNA
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Peppered Moths
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the peppered moth’s habitat that they blended into was subjected to a forest fire. Over the years the moths have changed colors to blend in with the singed wood (a salt and pepper gray)
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Malaria
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caused by a parasite and carried by female mosquitoes in their gut, when the mosquito bites the human the spores travel to the liver and begin paralyzing red blood cells—most prominent in 3rd world countries (Africa, India, etc.)
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Balanced Polymorphism
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the maintenance of two or more alleles in a population due to the selective advantage of the heterozygote.
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Polygenic Traits
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traits that are influenced by genes at two or more loci. (ex. Skin color, hair texture, eye color)
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Species
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a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of one species are reproductively isolated from members of all other species (can’t mate and produce fertile offspring)
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Reproductive Isolation
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pertaining to groups of organisms that mainly because of genetic difference are prevented from mating and producing offspring with members of other groups.
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Polytypic Species
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species composed of populations that differ in the expression of one or more traits.
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Population
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with in a species, a community of individuals where mates are usually found.
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genetics
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study of gene structure and action and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. Foundation for evolutionary change.
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Hardy Weinbery Equilibrium
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P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
mathematical relationship expressing the predicted distribution of alleles in populations; central theorem of population genetics. |
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Genotype Frequency
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genetic make up of an individual
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Allelic Frequency
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in a population the percentage of all the alleles at a locus accounted for by one specific allele.
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phenotype
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observable or detectable physical characteristics of an organism, detectable expressions of genotypes, frequently influenced by environmental factors.
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Polymorphisms
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Loci with more than one allele—can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action (as in ABO) or can exist solely at the DNA level.
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Antigens
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large molecules found the surface of cells
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Immune Response
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body's reaction to a foreign antigen
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Cline
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gradual change in the frequency of genotypes and phenotypes from one geographical region to another
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Clinical Distribution of traits
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most traits that show a clinical distribution are Mendelian.
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Accrued Advantages
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change from monkeys
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Darwin's Theory
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1. world changes over time
2. common decent 3. multipication of species -split 4. gradualism 5. survival of the fittest |
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2.7 billion yrs ago Prokaryotic cell invaded another prokaryotic cell creating a ____
(invading cell becomes neucli) |
Eukaryote cell
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brings in amino acids that are brought together to form proteins (site of protein formation)
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Ribosome
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2 types of Eukaryote
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Somatic cells
Sex Cells |
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Sex Cells
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reproductive cells or gametes
Egg and sperm serve for reproduction to form zygote (becomes individual) |
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oversees production of proteins and regulates body
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Chromosomes
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1 Chromosomes =s
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1 DNA molecule
chromosoes are DNA tells us how to function |
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Interphase
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goes about doing what cell normally does
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Phrophase
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when cell begins to divide
-membrane breaksdown & DNA forms into seperate |
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Metaphase
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line up next to each other along equator of the cell
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Anaphase
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centramids dissolve and begin to seperate and pull apart
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Telophase
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our cell seperates into 2
each has one chromitid from chromosomes -cell pinches into 2 cells & membrane forms around neucleus forms 2 daughter cells |
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________ is the process of 2 parent cells ending with 2 daughter cells. Daughters have 46 each
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Mitosis
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Phases of Meiosis
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Meiosis I- reduction phase
Meiosis II- Division phase |
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Division of chromosomes into pairs
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Meiosis
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Reduction
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Meiosis I
-reduce chromosomes to 23 pairs |
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Division
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Meiosis II
-dividing cells |
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oogenesis
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egg formation
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Polar Body
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genetic energy and falls off.
Male contribute no cytoplasm and all mitochondria from mom. |
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Crossing Over
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when part of a chromosome switches with another one
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Base pair ruling
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only adenine and thymine can connect
and only guanin and cytosine can connect |
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_____ becomes a chromosome with 2 strands (new strand forms and old strand unzips & new one latches onto each side of the strand)
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DNA Replication
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DNA Replication occurs in...
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interphase
only happens when cells split |
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_________ molecules that regulate the body,determine structure, digestion and repair it
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Protein
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chains of amino acids are
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proteins
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2 parts of protein sythesis
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Transcription & Translation
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RNA
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1. Single stranded
2. sugar is different then sugar in DNA 3. Uracil is the hydrodunas base (replaces Thymine) 4. can pass through the nuclear membrane |
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Transcription
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DNA splits apart
forms RNA mRNA goes to the ribosome |
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Translation
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mRNA is a ribosome
tRNA has 3 bases each base carries an amino acid on the other side tRNA lines up with mRNA @ Ribosome drops off amino acids and gets another one |
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Earth is bombarded by cosmic radiation
(passing through our bodies and pushing cells out) |
Point mutation
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genetic bottleneck
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population goes through this
ex: catasrophy happens and we loose some characteristics |
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__________ is maintained if no evolution occurs
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equilibrium
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population
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total # of people in area or group of individuals that make and share a gene pool
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Human variation
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studied through population genetics
(1) isolate pop (2) check to see if evolution is occuring |
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